Travis McCracken 2024-09-14 Travis McCracken 2024-09-14

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Travis McCracken 2024-07-25 Travis McCracken 2024-07-25

How do placebos ease pain? Mouse brain study offers clues

NEWS

24 July 2024

How do placebos ease pain? Mouse brain study offers clues

The discovery of a brain circuit involved in the pain-relieving effect of placebos could lead to new treatments.

By
Miryam Naddaf

When people take a sugar pill they believe is a painkiller, it can lessen their experience of pain.

Researchers have long known about this phenomenon, called the placebo effect. But the biological mechanisms behind it have remained a mystery. Now, neuroscientists have identified brain circuits in mice that could help to explain how placebos can relieve pain.

Strong placebo response thwarts pain killer trials

In a study published today in Nature1, scientists traced the parts of the brain that were activated in mice conditioned to expect pain relief, mimicking how humans experience the placebo effect when given a pill with no active ingredients. They were surprised to see activity in the cerebellum and brainstem — parts of the brain that are typically associated with movement and coordination, rather than pain perception.

“We had no real insight into how [the placebo effect] was happening and if it was a real phenomenon,” says Clifford Woolf, a neuroscientist at the University of Harvard in Boston, Massachusetts. “I think this has helped us identify, indeed it is a real phenomenon.”

The findings might eventually lead to new ways to treat pain, says study co-author Grégory Scherrer, a neurobiologist at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. “We might have a completely novel type of drug.”

Pain-relief pathway

Imaging studies in people have shown that placebo pain relief is associated with activity in the brainstem and a brain region called the anterior cingulate cortex.

To investigate this further, Scherrer and his team developed an experiment to create a placebo-like expectation of pain relief in mice. Using two chambers, one with a comfortably warm floor and one with a painfully hot floor, they conditioned the animals to expect the pain of stepping on the hot floor to ease when entering the cooler chamber.

Using live imaging tools, the team identified a group of neurons that were active during the placebo experiment. These were located in the Pontine nucleus (Pn), an area in the brainstem that connects the cerebral cortex with the cerebellum, and has not previously been associated with pain.

To further understand the role of these neurons in pain relief, the authors measured the effects of blocking their activity. When their Pn neurons were inhibited, mice moving onto the hot floor were quicker to perform pain-relief behaviours such as licking their paws, rearing and jumping. Mice with activated Pn neurons took longer to lick their paws “because it’s not that painful”, says Scherrer.

Follow-up analysis of 4,932 neuron cells in the Pn revealed that 65% had opioid receptors — the same kind that are activated by powerful painkillers. The neurons with opioid receptors extended to three areas in the cerebellum, which was not previously thought to play a part in the expectation of pain relief. The researchers identified a group of Purkinje cells — the main cells in the cerebellum — that became increasingly active during the placebo experiment.

“There are almost certainly endogenous opioids that are participating in this,” says Woolf.

New targets

The research could open up new avenues for understanding how existing painkillers work and discovering new, more effective ones.

Scientists could explore how to engage the neural circuit in the brainstem and cerebellum without relying on placebo pills. Future studies might find “a way that would make it more reliable [to] activate the body’s own control mechanisms that can suppress the experience of pain”, says Woolf.

Understanding these brain circuits could also shed light on why some pain therapies, such as cognitive behavioural therapies and transcranial magnetic stimulation, actually work.

“The brain is a complicated haystack, and we’re often looking for a needle,” says Tom Wager, a neuroscientist who studies the placebo effect at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. This study “provides a new target that we can look for in human studies”.

Questions remain about what precisely activates the placebo effect in those who experience it. “What we still don’t know is, why does it occur in some individuals and not others, and why it disappears over time,” says Woolf.

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-02439-w

Travis McCracken 2024-07-19 Travis McCracken 2024-07-19

Shining the light on progress: Canadian Photonics Fabrication Centre breaks ground on new cutting-edge expansion

Forward by Travis via 4o.

The National Research Council of Canada (NRC) has initiated a significant modernization project for its Canadian Photonics Fabrication Centre (CPFC). This project involves expanding the centre's capabilities and updating its equipment to enhance its role in research, innovation, and commercialization of photonic components. These components are vital for high-speed data transmission in fibre optic networks, particularly in data centres.

The Government of Canada allocated $90 million in Budget 2021 for this modernization, with an additional $25 million provided through the NRC's Office of Facilities Renewal Management Program. These funds aim to increase the CPFC's capacity and ensure it continues to meet both Canadian and global demand for compound semiconductor foundry services.

Key aspects of the modernization include:

1. Expansion of Facilities: A new 7,500 square-foot building is under construction, which will feature a modern clean room, a gowning room, and a wastewater collection system to minimize the environmental impact of the fabrication processes.

2. Equipment Upgrades: The centre will receive new metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) reactors, enhancing its capacity for epitaxial growth with greater precision.

3. Operational Continuity: Despite the ongoing construction, the CPFC will remain operational, ensuring that there are no disruptions to its services or client deliverables.

This modernization is designed to support next-generation optical components, addressing the growing demand and ensuring the CPFC remains at the forefront of the telecommunications supply chain. The project highlights the NRC's commitment to maintaining Canada's leadership in photonics and semiconductor fabrication, providing critical infrastructure to support both national and international markets.

Access ya know…where is the cowbell?

December 21, 2023 - Ottawa, Ontario

Construction of the new CPFC building started in Ottawa on September 18, 2023.

The National Research Council of Canada (NRC) recently broke ground on a major construction project that will modernize its Canadian Photonics Fabrication Centre (CPFC) by adding capacity and capability for research, innovation and commercialization. The centre is a semiconductor fabrication facility that produces unique photonic components. These components generate, modulate, amplify and receive high-speed optical signals over fibre optic networks and are crucial for high-speed data transmission in data centres.

In Budget 2021, the Government of Canada provided $90 million to the NRC to update some of the fabrication centre's existing equipment and expand its current space. An additional $25 million was allocated through the NRC's Office of Facilities Renewal Management Program. These investments aim to increase the Canadian Photonics Fabrication Centre's capacity as Canada's only pure play compound semiconductor foundry and enhance its ability to better meet Canadian and global client demand.

As part of the modernization, the NRC is expanding the facility to improve critical processes for next-generation optical components, meet growing demand and see outdated equipment replaced to better support the telecommunications supply chain. Construction began in September 2023 on the new 7,500 square-foot building, which will include a modern clean room, a gowning room and a wastewater collection system to reduce the fabrication centre's environmental footprint. It will have the ability to host 2 new metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) reactors for additional capacity for epitaxial growth with more precise control. During construction of the new facility, the fabrication centre will remain open, with no impact on operations or client deliverables.

Check back soon for more updates about the Canadian Photonics Fabrication Centre.

A 3-D rendering illustrating the new CPFC building.

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Travis McCracken 2024-07-04 Travis McCracken 2024-07-04

AN ESSAY ON COMBUSTION BY MRS. FULHAME

AN ESSAY
ON
COMBUSTION,
WITH A VIEW TO
A NEW ART
OF
DYING AND PAINTING.
WHEREIN THE PHLOGISTIC AND ANTIPHLOGISTIC
HYPOTHESES ARE PROVED
ERRONEOUS.

BY MRS. FULHAME.

THE FIRST AMERICAN EDITION.

PHILADELPHIA.
PRINTED AND SOLD BY JAMES HUMPHREYS,
Corner of Second and Walnut-streets.
1810.

BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR.

THE interesting contents of the subsequent pages, by the very ingenious Mrs. Fulhame, are assuredly deserving of more attention, than they have hitherto received; for although published so far back as the year 1794, little notice has been paid to the numerous experiments, by which she has opposed the doctrines of combustion, &c. advanced by the respective advocates of the phlogistic and antiphlogistic theories. How successfully she has executed this, must be left to the candid inquirer after truth, who, provided the end be attained, does not stop to consider from what source it is derived.

Whether it be that the pride of science, revolted at the idea of being taught by a female, I know not; but assuredly, the accomplished author of this essay, has sufficiently evinced the adequacy of her acquirements, in the promulgation of opinions subversive of a part of the highly esteemed edifice, raised by the efforts of Lavoisier and others.

That the work has hitherto remained unknown in this favoured land, where freedom of inquiry is so sedulously cherished, is matter of surprise; especially when it is known that many years past, the author was elected an honorary member of the then-existing chemical society of Philadelphia, a distinction founded on the merit of this work; yet the doctrines here advanced, appear to have been known to but few individuals, for they have never been comprised in the lectures on chemistry, which are given in various parts of the Union – nor, till lately, has the work been adverted to, in any of the numerous volumes on the science which annually appear from the British press. Truth however, at length appears likely to dissipate those mists, which, from whatever cause arising, have hitherto opposed the merited estimation of the author: in some of the late English treatises, this lady is respectfully mentioned; more particularly by the learned Dr. Thompson, in the third edition of his invalu- able System of Chemistry,1 when speaking of the reduction of the muriate of gold, whilst liquid, by some of the combustibles, but which decomposition does not happen when dry; he adds "for these very interesting facts we are indebted to the ingenious Mrs. Fulhame:" he then proceeds to mention some of her experiments, and continues "Mrs. Fulhame ascertained, that this reduction of the gold does not happen in any case unless the salt be moistened with water: when perfectly dry, it is not altered. This is not peculiar to the action of combustibles on metallic salts: it holds also, as we shall see afterwards, with respect to the metals. But it is by no means easy to see what makes water so indispensably necessary. It is not, as is commonly supposed, in order to secure the fluidity of the mixture: for Mrs. Fulhame has shewn that ether, though a liquid, has no effect in reducing gold unless water be present. She accounts very ingeniously for the phenomena, by supposing that the water is decomposed. The combustible combines with its oxygen, while its hydrogen combines with the oxygen of the gold, and reproduces water. This theory accounts very well for the phenomena; but it would require some direct proof to establish it completely."

The concession admitted in the last sentence, from so celebrated a chemist as Dr. Thompson undoubted- ly is, although in some degree counteracted by the concluding paragraph, cannot but be esteemed a strong proof of the merit of the opinions here advanced; and as a tacit avowal, of the inadequacy of the usually received explanation, in accounting for the phenomena under consideration.

Convinced by the forcible arguments and experiments of the decomposition of water being essential in all the processes here detailed, and considering the subject much simplified by the exposition given; I cannot but think the same reasoning would apply in many other cases, where some of the most active and energetic agents, are, by the present explanation, altogether thrown into the back ground. Thus, in procuring nitrogen gas from muscular flesh by means of diluted nitric acid, we are told, "that the nitric acid does not furnish the nitrogen gas is obvious, from its saturating after its action as large a quantity of alkali as before; consequently it could not have suffered any decomposition."2 That this deduction is not in the true spirit of chemical philosophy, which looks to the action of affinity, by which decomposition, and recomposition may at the same time progress, I have little hesitation in saying; and that the case adverted to is a compound, and not a simple play of affinity must be allowed, or we entirely destroy the agency of the most powerful body united, whose presence is nevertheless admitted to be essential to the process. If we suppose the nitrogen to be expelled from the flesh, by the action of the acid, which, with the water is also decomposed, we shall have a double portion of oxygen and nitrogen, which may thus combine. The oxygen of the water uniting to the nitrogen of the flesh, will produce a fresh supply of nitric acid, and whilst the nitrogen of the original acid escapes, its oxygen will unite to the liberated hydrogen of the decomposed water, to form an equal quantity. At the conclusion of this process of double affinity then, we shall have a quantity of new formed acid and water equal to the original, but in which the original elements, have changed situations. By this explanation, the acid retains the place of activity it ought to hold; and the necessity of its presence, is hereby maintained.

In like manner it has been said that sulphuric acid is not decomposed in aiding the decomposition of water with iron in procuring hydrogen gas, because it saturates as much alkali as before; but the same objections may be made to the validity of this opinion as to the former; and the process may be more reasonably explained on the principles of compound affinity. When the water is decomposed, its hydrogen escapes, but the acid is also decomposed, and whilst the oxygen of the acid oxydates the iron, the oxy- gen of the water unites with the sulphur to form a similar quantity of acid, which dissolves the oxydated iron. It would seem incredible, that in any other way, either the nitric or sulphuric acids, should be essential to the processes adverted to; and from these and other circumstances, such as, that a metal placed in dry oxygen gas does not oxydize, which ought to result, if simple affinity only was requisite; and by observing in all the late ingenious experiments of Mr. Davy, the presence of moisture appears to be essential in the decomposition of the alkalies, &c. although he mentions it, as only rendering them conductors, I cannot doubt the justice of the opinions deduced by Mrs. Fulhame from her numerous and well conducted experiments: and although it may be grating to many, to suppose a female capable of successfully opposing the opinions of some of our fathers in science; yet reflection will serve to satisfy the mind devoted to truth, that she has certainly thrown a stumbling block of no small magnitude, in the way of sentiments we have been taught to consider as sacred.

PHILADELPHIA,

February 14th, 1810.

PREFACE.

THE possibility of making cloths of gold, silver, and other metals by chymical processes, occurred to me in the year 1780; the project being mentioned to Doctor Fulhame and some friends, was deemed improbable. However, after some time, I had the satisfaction of realizing the idea in some degree by experiment.

Animated by this small success, I have from time to time ever since, prosecuted the subject as far as pecuniary circumstances would permit.

I imagined in the beginning, that a few experiments would determine the problem; but experience soon convinced me, that a very great number indeed were necessary, before such an art could be brought to any tolerable degree of perfection.

A narration of the numerous experiments, which I made with this view, would far exceed the bounds I prescribed myself in this essay; I shall therefore present the reader only with a few, selecting such as I judge most interesting, and best adapted to illustrate the subject.

Though I was, after some considerable time, able to make small bits of cloth of gold and silver, yet I did not think them worthy of public attention; but by persevering, I at length succeeded in making pieces of gold cloth, as large as my finances would admit.

Some time after this period, I found the invention was applicable to painting, and would also contribute to facilitate the study of geography; for I have applied it to some maps, the rivers of which I represented in silver, and the cities in gold. The rivers appearing as it were in silver streams, have a most pleasing effect on the sight, and relieve the eye of that painful search for the course and origin of rivers, the minutest branches of which can be splendidly represented in this way.

Notwithstanding this further success, I was dubious about the propriety of publishing this essay; I therefore shewed some specimens of these metallic stuffs to persons, whom I thought qualified to judge of them; some approved of them very much, and were pleased to say, that the invention would make an era in the arts; others thought it a pretty conceit; and others were of opinion that the stuffs had not that splendour or burnished appearance, which could entitle them to public notice.

The latter opinion had much weight with me; for it must be allowed, that the specimens which I shewed them, had not that lustre and polish necessary for shoulder-knots, lace, spangles, gold muslins, &c. that some of them had a reddish cast, bordering on the colour of copper, some a purple, mixed with gold; and that some of them were unequal in the die and seemed stained; which imperfections were owing to a partial reduction of the metal in the fibres of the silk.

But all these imperfections, except the want of that burnished lustre so necessary for gold lace, spangles, &c. I knew I could remedy; and therefore the criticism, as far it relates to them, had no great influence with me.

I am in possession of some pieces, one of which is about a yard in length, which have scarce any of these imperfections.

Moreover, that high polish of burnished gold, so necessary in spangles, lace, &c. would in my opinion, be a great imperfection in gold stuffs designed for whole suits; as a person in such a habit would look like a gilded statue.

I saw a piece of gold stuff made for the late king of Spain, which was of a purple colour, with gold wire shining through it, though rather obscurely, and it was much admired; I was so struck with its beauty, that I attempted to imitate it on a small bit of white silk; and succeeded, having produced a beautiful purple colour, with gold beaming through it.

Therefore, the want of that burnished appearance is no objection to this art; for the paler and cooler, to a certain degree, the colour of the gold is, the more lovely do these metallic cloths appear.

I made small bits of gold tiffany, which looked exceedingly beautiful; the fineness of the thread con- tributing much to that effect; and, in my opinion, such webs are inimitable by mechanical means.

Beside, though I am not able to make cloths like burnished gold, others of greater means and abilities may; for we cannot pretend to prescribe any limits to the perfection, at which chymistry and the arts may arrive.

However, I must acknowledge, that this unfavourable judgment suspended my intention of publishing this little work, until a celebrated philosopher happening, some time in October 1793, to see some of the same pieces, and indeed some of the worst, viewed the performance in a very different light.

This illustrious friend of science, not only approved of the specimens shewn him, but offered to have a memoir on the subject presented to the Royal Society: but different incidents dissuaded me from that mode of publication, and induced me to adopt the present.

I now no longer hesitated about the propriety of publishing; for, every thing considered, I judged, that though this art could never be established, which is by no means my opinion, yet the experiments themselves, upon which I attempted to found it, as they are new, and seem to throw some light on the theory of combustion, are not unworthy the attention of chymists.

Those who viewed my performance with a favourable eye were of opinion, that I should dedicate this essay to some patron of the arts; or apply for his Majesty's royal letters patent, in order to reimburse the expense necessarily incurred in this investigation, an expense so disproportionate to the fortune which supported it, that nothing but a certain fatality and the hope of reward, could induce me to persevere.

As to patrons, I have heard of such beings on the record of fame, but never saw one; on the contrary, it has been my lot to know of many whose malignant breath, as far as its deadly influence can extend, never ceases to blast the unsheltered blossoms of science. And as for a patent, had I even the means I should perhaps never attempt it; for if we may judge of the future by the past, I can safely affirm, that such an application would be vain.

Thus circumstanced, I published this essay in its present imperfect state, in order to prevent the furacious attempts of the prowling plagiary, and the insidious pretender to chymistry, from arrogating to themselves and assuming my invention in plundering silence; for there are those, who if they cannot by chymical, never fail by stratagem and mechanical means, to deprive industry of the fruits and fame of her labours.

But the British empire should not forget, that she owes her power and greatness to commerce; that she is, as it were, the hive of the arts, and should not, by the sulphureous vapour of oppression and neglect, compel her bees to swarm for protection to foreign climes, but rather permit them to roam in their native soil, and allow them, in the winter of life, to sip a little of the honey of their own industry.

The nation, whose evil genius withholds this protection, only sounds the trumpet of emigration, and must ere long lament her cities deserted, her fields brown with desolation, and herself the easy prey, and vile drudge of surrounding greatness.

I first imagined that the proper title of this performance should be, An Essay on the Art of making Cloths of Gold, Silver, and other Metals, by chymical processes; but reflecting on the imperfect state of the art, and that my experiments related not only to the reduction, but also to the calcination of me- tals and other combustible bodies, I determined to entitle it, An Essay on Combustion, with a View to a new Art of Dying and Painting, which includes every thing the experiments can extend to.

As to the style, I have endeavoured to relate the experiments in a plain and simple manner, aiming more at perspicuity than elegance.

I have adopted the French Nomenclature, as the terms of it are so framed as to prevent circumlocution, assist the memory, by pointing out the combination and state of the elements existing in each compound, as far they are known; advantages to be found in no other nomenclature.

However, the English reader must regret, that the French chymists have not preferred the terms air, and ammonia, to the less harmonious sounds, gas, and ammoniac. I took the liberty of writing the latter ammonia.

I have not related my experiments in the order in which they were made, sensible that such a narration would be tedious, and that a short extract from them would answer every purpose at present intended.

The experiments related I have endeavoured to arrange in such a manner, as mutually to illustrate each other, by contrasting the successful with those that failed, thus pointing out a general principle, which forms a chain through the whole, connects all the experiments, shews their points of coincidence and disagreement, and by this means furnishes us with data, by which I hope the art may be improved.

This arrangement also facilitates the perusal, and relieves the mind of that fatiguing attention, which must necessarily be given to an indigested mass of insulated experiments, that have no clue to connect them, but has on the other hand its disadvantages; for it throws a sameness on the work, incompatible with that variety which is often so agreeable.

My apparatus consisted chiefly of a few glass vessels for the solution of metals, and the formation of such elastic fluids as I used. The cheapest and the most simple of those described by Dr. Priestley answered my purpose.

Dr. Nooth's machine for combining carbonic acid with water, is very convenient for making small experiments with some kinds of gas, as the base of that machine serves to contain the materials, from which the gas is obtained; and the middle glass the cloth previously dipped in the metallic solution, on which the experiment is to be made.

The cloth may be suspended in this part of the machine, by means of a thread and a cork.

As this machine is useful only in experiments on a very small scale, I sometimes used tall glass cylinders, in which I suspended the subject of the experiment, by means of a thread, a cork, and a bit of cement.

This cylinder I placed over a vessel containing the materials, which produced the gas.

It is very convenient to have cylinders of different sizes, proportioned to the scale on which the experiments are to be made.

But machinery for confining elastic fluids is not always necessary, as most of the experiments may be performed in the open air.

It may appear presuming to some, that I should engage in pursuits of this nature; but averse from indolence, and having much leisure, my mind led me to this mode of amusement, which I found entertaining, and will I hope be thought inoffensive by the liberal and the learned. But censure is perhaps inevitable, for some are so ignorant, that they grow sullen and silent, and are chilled with horror at the sight of any thing that bears the semblance of learning, in whatever shape it may appear; and should the spectre appear in the shape of woman, the pangs which they suffer are truly dismal.

There are others who suffer the same torture in a still higher degree; but by virtue of an old inspiring tripod, on which ignorance, servility, or chance, has placed them, assume a dictatorship in science, and fancying their rights and prerogatives invaded, swell with rage, and are suddenly seized with a violent and irresistible desire of revenge, manifesting itself by innuendos, nods, whispers, sneers, grins, grimace, satanic smiles, and witticisms uttered sometimes in the acute, and sometimes in the nasal obtuse twang, with an affected hauteur, and contempt of the spectre; shrugs, and a variety of other contortions attending.

Sometimes the goblin, which thus agitates them lurks latent, and nothing is perceived but hollow murmurs, portending storms: sometimes the lurking fiend darts with sidelong fury at the devoted object, which if unarmed falls a victim to the grisly monster. But happily for human kind, the magic tripod drags none into its dizzy vortex, but those who are radically stupid and malicious, who are the beasts of prey destined to hunt down unprotected genius, to stain the page of biography, or to rot unnoted in the grave of oblivion.

Although the surge of deliberate malice be unavoidable, its force is often spent in froth and bubbles; for this little bark of mine has weathered out full many a storm, and stemmed the boisterous tide; and though the cargo be not rich, the dangers which may hereafter be pourtrayed on votive tablet, may serve as a beacon to future mariners.

But happen what may, I hope I shall never experience such desertion of mind, as not to hold the helm with becoming fortitude against the storm raised by ignorance, petulant arrogance, and privileged dulness.

However, were I not encouraged by the judgment of some friends, and possessed of specimens, to shew the progress made in the art, I should never perhaps venture to publish this Essay; as I am sensible it labours under many imperfections, which inaccuracy of observation and the drapery of imagination, must spread over the whole; imperfections perhaps unavoidable in such a discussion.

Finding, the experiments could not be explained on any theory hitherto advanced, I was led to form an opinion different from that of M. Lavoisier, and other great names. Persuaded that we are not to be deterred from the investigation of truth by any authority however great, and that every opinion must stand or fall by its own merits, I venture with diffidence to offer mine to the world, willing to relinquish it, as soon as a more rational appears.

November 5th, 1794.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

THOUGH some of the phenomena of combustion were known from the earliest ages, yet no rational attempt to explain them was made till about the middle of the 17th century.

Before that period, it was supposed by alchymists and physicians, that sulphur was the inflammable principle, on which all the phenomena of combustion depended.

But Beccher perceiving, that sulphur did not exist in several combustible bodies, asserted it was not the principle of inflammability; which he maintained, was a different substance, common to sulphur and other combustible bodies: this principle he supposed to be of a dry nature, and called it inflammable earth.

Stahl refined this hypothesis by supposing the inflammable earth of Beccher to be pure fire, fixed in combustible bodies, and constituting an essential part of them.

According to Stahl, a combustible body is a compound, containing fixed fire, or phlogiston; and combustion is the disengagement of this phlogiston from a fixed to a free state, attended sometimes with heat and light: when these phenomena cease, the body becomes incombustible; if this calcined body be now heated with charcoal, or any other inflammable substance, capable of giving it phlogiston, or fixed fire, it returns again to the class of inflammable bodies.

This hypothesis is so simple and plausible, that, since the year 1736, it was received, though differently modified, all over Europe.

The principal objections to it are, that the existence of phlogiston cannot be demonstrated; and that it does not explain, why bodies become heavier after oxygenation, and lighter after reduction.

M. Lavoisier discovering, that the increase of weight, which bodies acquire during combustion, is equal to the weight of the combustible substance, and that of the vital air employed, denied the existence of phlogiston, or fixed fire, in combustible bodies; though he grants the existence of combined caloric in them. He seems then to allow the existence of phlogiston, but to have changed its name to that of caloric and denied it the power of producing combustion.

However, after discovering that the increase of weight, which bodies acquire during combustion, depended on the quantity of the air absorbed, he was led to the following beautiful hypothesis, equally simple as that of Stahl, and if ever any hypothesis deserved the name of theory, surely it is that of M. Lavoisier.

According to M. Lavoisier, "an inflammable body is nothing else but a body which has the property of decomposing vital air, and taking the base from caloric and light; that is to say the oxygene, which was united to them; and that a body ceases to be combustible when its affinity for the oxygene, is satisfied, or when it is saturated with that principle; but that it becomes again combustible, when the oxygene has been taken from it by another body, which has a stronger affinity with that principle

"When this decomposition of the air is rapid, and as it were, instantaneous, there is an appearance of flame, heat, and light; when on the contrary, the decomposition is very slow, and quietly made, the heat and light are scarcely perceptible."3

Thus all the phenomena of oxygenation, which Stahl ascribed to the disengagement of phlogiston, M. Lavoisier ascribes to the union of oxygen with combustible bodies.

And on the other hand, all the phenomena of reduction, which Stahl attributed to the union of phlogiston to calcined bodies, M. Lavoisier attributes to the separation of oxygen from the same. Combustion then, according to Stahl, is the transition of phlogiston from one body to another; and according to M. Lavoisier, 'tis nothing but the transition of oxygen from one substance to another.

Stahl supposed, that the heat and light attending combustion proceed from the burning body; but M. Lavoisier supposes, that the heat and light proceed principally, and almost entirely from the vital air.

However, this opinion of M. Lavoisier is far from being established, for Doctor Crawford has shewn, that inflammable air contains a much greater quantity of heat, than vital air does.

It is evident then, that the great advantage which M. Lavoisier's hypothesis has over that of Stahl is, that the former seems to account for the increase and decrease of weight, which bodies suffer during calcination and reduction.

Notwithstanding this brilliant discovery, which seems to account, with such ease, for the increase of weight, that bodies acquire during combustion, M. Macquer was of opinion, that M. Lavoisier's hypothesis was insufficient to explode that of Stahl, and endeavoured to remove the objection urged against the non-existence of phlogiston, by supposing it to be light; and that in every case of combustion, light and vital air mutually precipitate each other; so that according to M. Macquer, when a body is oxygenated, vital air unites to it, and disengages light; and on the other hand, when an oxygenated substance is reduced to its inflammable state, light unites to it and disengages vital air.

M. Scheel also modified the hypothesis of Stahl, by supposing that heat, light, and inflammable air, were compounds of empyreal, or vital air, and phlogiston. Light he thought, contained more phlogiston than heat did; and inflammable air more than either; he farther supposed that these compounds of vital air and phlogiston were convertible into one another, by the addition or subtraction of phlogiston; and that when a metal was reduced by them, they were decomposed; their phlogiston uniting to the substance reduced.

His idea of calcination is, that metals either attract empyreal air by means of their phlogiston, and thus form heat, or that they communicate their phlogiston to the air, and attract heat from the fire: and that, either way, there is empyreal air in the calces, which makes the overplus of their weight.4

The last modification of Stahl's hypothesis is that of M. Kirwan, who supposes that inflammable air exists in a fixed or concrete state in all combustible bodies, and is the true phlogiston of the ancient chymists; and as it can be exhibited in the form of air, its existence is no longer doubtful.

M. Kirwan supposes, that when combustible bodies are calcined, or changed into acids, they combine most commonly with fixed air, formed during the operation, by the union of their phlogiston to vital air; and sometimes to other substances, and water, which is either absorbed in specie, or formed by the union of their phlogiston to vital air, during calcination.

He supposes, that some of these are restored to their combustible state by the decomposition of their fixed air; some partly by the decomposition of their fixed air, and partly by its expulsion, and that of the other foreign bodies they had absorbed; and lastly, that some recover their combustibility by the expulsion of water, and others possibly by its decomposition in high degrees of heat. In all these reductions he supposes a simultaneous reunion of these bodies to phlogiston, or the inflammable principle.5

Though M. Kirwan's hypothesis seems to account for the increase of weight, which bodies acquire during combustion, yet he has not proved the existence of inflammable air in a concrete state, in all combustible bodies; nor has he shewn, that fixed air is a compound of inflammable and vital air; neither has he proved, that fixed air is the acidifying principle.

All these objections have been made, with great justice to his hypothesis, by the Antiphlogistians; who also object, that M. Kirwan's account of calcination and reduction is complex, and repugnant to the simplicity of nature; "for," says M. De Four- croy,"as the author had admitted three general species of calcination, it was necessary, that he should likewise admit three kinds of reduction."6

This criticism is very just; but it will appear, that the antiphlogistic account of calcination and reduction is no less complex, erroneous and repugnant to the simplicity of nature; for when we consider the various sources, whence they derive the oxygen; which oxygenates bodies, and the long list of metallic reducers, which they suppose; it must be allowed that if simplicity be a recommendation, their hypothesis is destitute of that advantage.

Thus, according to M. Lavoisier the oxygen which oxygenates combustible bodies, is sometimes derived from vital air, sometimes from atmospheric air, sometimes from acids, sometimes from water, and sometimes from metallic oxids, &c.

On the other hand, the catalogue of substances which reduce bodies to their combustible state, is no less numerous.

"Heat," says M. De Fourcroy, "separates oxygene from some; one metal takes it from another; hydrogene, or inflammable gas, takes it from most metals, and carbon perhaps from all."7

To this list may be added phosphorus, sulphur, and compounds of these with hydrogen; also light and the electric fluid, &c. as will appear in the sequel.

But I shall endeavour to shew, that the hydrogen of water is the only substance, that restores oxygenated bodies to their combustible state; and that water is the only source of the oxygen, which oxygenates combustible bodies.

Want of simplicity is not the only defect in Mr. Lavoisier's hypothesis: for he supposes, that the increase of weight, which bodies acquire during combustion, depends on the absorption of the oxygenous principle alone.

Thus when a bit of phosphorus, sulphur or charcoal, is burnt in vital air; the increase of weight, which these bodies acquire, he attributes entirely to oxygen, or the base of vital air.

These combustions he explains, by supposing that the phosphorus, sulphur, and charcoal, decompose oxygen gas, by absorbing its base from caloric and light, which are set free.

"There is," says M. Lavoisier, "a total absorption of vital air, or rather of the oxygene, which forms its base in the combustion of phosphorus, and the weight of the phosphoric acid obtained, is found to be rigorously equal to the weight of the phosphorus, added to that of the vital air employed in its combustion. The same agreement of weights is observed in the combustion of imflammable gas and vital air, in the combustion of charcoal,"8 &c.

His idea of calcination of metals is the same.

"We do not," says M. Lavoisier, "affirm that vital air combines with metals to form metallic calces, because this manner of enunciating would not be sufficiently accurate: but we say, when a metal is heated to a certain temperature, and when its particles are separated from each other to a certain distance by heat, and their attraction to each other is sufficiently diminished, it becomes capable of decomposing vital air, from which it seizes the base, namely oxygene, and sets the other principle, namely caloric, at liberty.

"This explanation of what passes during the calcination is not an hypothesis, but the result of facts: It is upwards of twelve years, since the proofs have been laid by one of us, before the eyes of the academy, and have been verified by a numerous commission. It was then established, that when the calcination of metals is effected beneath an inverted glass vessel, or in closed vessels containing known quantities of air, the air itself is decomposed, and the weight of the metal becomes augmented by a quantity accurately equal to that of the air absorbed. It has since been found, that when the operation was performed in very pure vital air, the whole might be absorbed.

"No supposition enters into these explanations; the whole is proved by weight and measure."9

Hence it is evident, that M. Lavoisier confounds oxygen with oxygen gas, and considers the latter as a compound of oxygen, light, and caloric.

But since the dryest oxygen gas contains a large proportion of water, as Dr. Priestley and M. Kirwan have shewn;10 and since the whole of the gas, except the caloric and light, is absorbed, it necessarily follows that the increase of weight, which bodies acquire during combustion, depends not only on the oxygen, but also on the water, contained in vital air.

Therefore oxids are compounds of combustible bodies united to oxygen, and water.

Another great objection to M. Lavoisier's hypothesis is, that he supposes both oxygenation, and reduction, effected by a single affinity.

Thus according to him, when iron reduces a sulphate of copper, the iron does nothing more than separate the oxygen from the copper, by its superior attraction for that principle.

From this view of combustion, grounded on the most accurate experiments in chymistry, it is manifest that the antiphlogistic hypothesis does not account fully for the increase of weight, which bodies acquire during combustion; and consequently, that it cannot be admitted as a just theory.

COMBUSTION,
&c. &c.

CHAPTER I.
REDUCTION OF METALS
BY
HYDROGEN GAS.

AS Hydrogen, or the base of inflammable air, seems to act an important part in the following experiments, and is, according to some chymists, pure phlogiston itself; I have therefore assigned the first chapter in this essay to hydrogen gas, this being the most simple form, in which hydrogen has hitherto been obtained.

But I had not the means of procuring this gas free of carbon, and other impurities, that it dissolves and elevates during its formation; or of excluding atmospheric air, which circumstances, I am sensible, must, in some measure, influence the result; as it cannot be supposed, that these extraneous bodies would remain inactive during the process of reduction. However, as such exactness is not in the power of every experimenter, I was under a necessity of using hydrogen gas, with the disadvantages here mentioned.

Though most of the experiments in this essay were made on a variety of white and coloured silks, I shall relate only those made on the former, as it exhibits the changes produced more distinctly, and contains less foreign matter to modify the result of experiment; and, for brevity's sake, I shall use the term silk, by which white silk is always designed.

EXPERIMENT I.

GOLD.

I poured a quantity of sulphuric ether on a solution of gold in nitro muriatic acid, and, by this means, obtained a solution of gold in ether, which I separated from the acid.

In this ethereal solution of gold, I dipped a piece of silk; after it was taken out, and the ether evaporated, it was suspended in a tall glass cylinder, placed over a vessel, containing a mixture of diluted sulphuric acid, and iron filings.

The silk thus exposed to a rapid current of hydrogen gas acquired, after some time, a purple colour, and a large spangle of gold, of an irregular figure, appeared on the upper end of the silk, and looked very brilliant.

The silk was kept exposed to the gas about four months, and frequently observed, but no other remarkable change was perceived, except that the purple colour became more intense: the experiment was now discontinued; and on taking out the silk, and examining it in the light of the sun, particles of reduced gold were observed; but they were very small, and by no means so brilliant, as that, which first appeared.

During the experiment, fresh quantities of materials for supplying hydrogen gas were occasionally added.

From the brilliant spangle of reduced gold observed in this experiment, I concluded, that there was a sufficient quantity of the metal in the fibres of the silk, could it be reduced.

This spot of reduced gold was very permanent, and adhered firmly to the silk.

EXPERIMENT II.

GOLD.

In order to determine, whether a solution of gold in ether, or one in water, were best adapted to the object of these experiments; I evaporated to dryness a solution of gold in nitro-muriatic acid, and dissolved the salt in distilled water: in this solution, I immersed a piece of silk, which, after it was dried in the air, was suspended in a glass cylinder, like the former piece, and exposed to the action of hydrogen gas about two months.

The silk after some time assumed a purple colour, and five or six specks of reduced gold, of the size of pin heads, and one much larger, were observed. Examining the silk in the sun-beams, I perceived the whole of it spangled with minute particles of reduced gold.

After many experiments with these two solutions of gold, I was led to conclude, that the solution in water answered best.

EXPERIMENT III.

SILVER.

Having dissolved some pure silver in diluted nitric acid, and evaporated some of the water by a gentle heat, I placed it in the dark to crystallize The crystals were separated from the solution, and dissolved in distilled water; to one measure of this solution, which was saturated with the nitrate of silver, ten or twelve measures of distilled water were added.

In this diluted solution, a piece of silk was dipped; after it was taken out, it was dried at the fire: the silk dried in this manner, retained its white colour; whereas, were it dried gradually in the air; and especially, were the light considerable, its white colour would be changed to a reddish brown, more or less intense, according to the quantity of light present.

Some kinds of silk, on being immersed in a solution of nitrate of silver, have some of their threads immediately coloured brown; but I often got white silk, which would retain its pure white colour, if dried at the fire, or in the dark.

The piece of silk dried, as above, was suspended in the middle glass of Dr. Nooth's machine; and in- to the lower glass were introduced a diluted solution ef sulphuric acid, and some small iron nails.

The machine was now placed in a dark closet, to exclude the action of light; after some time, the silk, thus exposed to hydrogen gas, put on a light brown colour, which gradually became deeper, until it was changed to a disagreeable black, with some mixture of brown: then very small particles of reduced silver began to appear, which increased by degrees, in number, and brightness.

The experiment was continued four months; after which time, the silk was taken out of the machine: it had a gray metallic appearance, intermixed with a considerable tinge of brown.

This experiment was repeated on another piece of silk, every circumstance being the same, except that a quantity of water was put in the middle glass of the machine, over which the silk was suspended; the intention of interposing the water in this experiment was to purify the gas.

The appearances were much the same, as in the last experiment; except that the silk became black sooner; and that some spangles of the silver were larger, and better reduced.

The specks of reduced silver were permanent, and adhered firmly to the silk.

EXPERIMENT IV.

LEAD.

In a solution of acetite of lead in distilled water I dipped a piece of silk, and dried it in the air; it was then suspended over a quantity of water in Dr. Nooth's machine, and exposed to hydrogen gas about three months.

The appearances were much the same as in the last experiment, except that the silk was not so black: the particles of reduced lead resembled silver.

Similar experiments were made in this machine on bits of silk imbued with a solution of nitro-muriate of gold in water; but the appearances being much the same as those mentioned in the first and second experiments, it is unnecessary to repeat them here.

It is much easier to imagine, than express my anxiety, to discover the cause of the brilliant specks of reduced gold and silver, with which the pieces of silk in these experiments were sometimes spangled; concluding, that were the cause ascertained, it would be a considerable step towards accomplishing the object in view.

But many and diversified were the experiments I made before the circumstance, on which the spangles depended, was perceived.

At length, I found it depended on the presence of moisture; and that the spangles of reduced metal were owing to small drops of water carried up by the elastic fluid, and deposited on the silk.

The experiments, which led to this conclusion, shall be related in their proper places. I shall now proceed to recite the remainder of the experiments in this essay, conformable to the plan laid down in the preface, premising an occurrence observed in the course of them.

I sometimes found, that the production of hydrogen gas from a mixture of acid, water, and iron nails, would unexpectedly stop, which induced me to add more acid; this not succeeding, I added more water, but still no gas was formed: the proportions of acid and water were varied without effect. Thinking the mixture of acid and water unfit for the purpose, I poured it off, and repeatedly washed and agitated the nails with more water, which was also poured off; but happening inadvertently to add some of the mixture of acid and water, which I had before poured off as unfit for use, I was surprised to find the gas produced with great rapidity.

Reflecting on the cause of this odd circumstance, I concluded that it depended on a crust of superoxygenated iron, formed on the surface of the nails, which defended them from the action of the water and acid, and that this crust was removed by the agitation and washing, which enabled the diluted acid to act again on the iron.

EXPERIMENT V.

GOLD.

I immersed a bit of silk in a solution of nitro-muriate of gold in distilled water, and dried it in the air; it was then placed over a cylindrical glass vessel, containing a mixture of diluted sulphuric acid and iron nails, for about half an hour; but no reduction of the metal could be observed.

I dipped another bit of silk in the same solution of gold, and exposed it, while wet to the same current of hydrogen gas, and instantly signs of reduction appeared; for the yellow colour, which the solution imparts to silk, began to change to a green, and very soon a film of reduced gold glittered on the surface opposed to the gas: shortly after, a beautiful blue spot, fringed with orange and purple, was formed on the middle of the silk. During the experiment, which lasted about half an hour, the silk was kept constantly wet with distilled water.

When experiments are made with this preparation of gold, it is necessary to evaporate the solution to dryness, before the salt be dissolved in the water; as an excess of acid prevents the reduction in a great measure. Solutions of gold in these experiments do not admit of being so largely diluted, as solutions of silver, and other metals do.

EXPERIMENT VI.

SILVER.

I immersed a piece of silk in a solution of nitrate of silver, and dried it in a dark place; it was then exposed to a current of hydrogen gas about twenty minutes; but no reduced silver appeared, the only change observable was a brown stain.

I immersed another bit of the same silk in the same solution of silver, and having exposed it, while wet, to a stream of hydrogen gas, I soon observed evident signs of reduction; the white colour of the silk was changed to a brown, which became gradually more intense; and the surface of the silk, opposed to the gas, was coated with reduced silver: various colours, as blue, purple, red, orange, and yellow, attended the reduction. These colours often change, and are succeeded by others in the progress of the reduction. The threads of the silk look like silver wire, tarnished in some parts, but of great lustre in others.

The silk was kept wet with distilled water during the experiment. When the silk happened to be too much wetted, the under surface opposed to the gas was often covered with scales of a dull blue colour: these, after the silk dries, may be brushed off, and another coat of reduced silver, which adheres firmly, but has no considerable brightness, is left behind.

These experiments on the reduction of gold, and silver, were often repeated with nearly the same result.

EXPERIMENT VII.

SILVER.

Thinking some other preparation of silver might answer better than a nitrate, I precipitated some of the latter with a solution of muriate of soda, and poured the whole on a filter; the precipitate was well washed with distilled water, and dissolved in ammonia. In this solution I immersed a piece of silk, and dried it in the air; and having exposed it to the action of hydrogen gas, I could perceive no signs of reduction, except a faint brown colour.

I dipped another bit of silk in the same solution of silver, and in order to determine if water had the power of promoting the reduction of the silver in this preparation, as it had in the former experiments, I exposed the silk, while wet, to the same current of hydrogen gas; and in a few seconds the metallic lustre was evident on the surface opposed to the current. After some little time, a blue speck and a faint trace of yellow appeared, but soon vanished.

This preparation of silver does not stain white silk so much as a nitrate does; the reduced silver was indeed very brilliant, but soon grew dull, and disappeared; a brown stain only remaining; so that it seems rather inferior to nitrate of silver, which also, after reduction, tarnishes, grows dull, and often disappears; but sometimes part of it remains permanently reduced.

EXPERIMENT VIII.

PLATINA.

With much difficulty I procured a small quantity of the ore of platina, and dissolved it in nitro muriatic acid. The solution was evaporated to dryness, and the salt was then dissolved in distilled water.

A bit of silk was dipped in part of this solution, and dried in the air; it was then exposed to a brisk current of hydrogen gas about twenty minutes, but no signs of reduction appeared.

Another bit of silk was immersed in the solution of platina, and exposed, while wet, to the same current of hydrogen gas; in five or six minutes the platina was reduced, exhibiting a livid white metallic appearance on the surface of the silk opposed to the current. No colours attended the reduction. This solution imparts a yellowish brown colour to silk.

After some time, the whole of the metallic lustre disappeared, in proportion as the silk became dry.

The solution of platina requires more time, and a stronger current of hydrogen gas for its reduction, than solutions of silver and gold do.

EXPERIMENT IX.

MERCURY.

I immersed a bit of silk in a solution of oxygenated muriate of mercury in distilled water, and dried it in the air: it was then exposed to a stream of hydrogen gas; but underwent no visible change.

I dipped another bit of silk in the same solution of mercury, and exposed it, while wet, to the same current of gas; the metal was soon reduced in a beautiful manner, and resembled silver.

The reduction began suddenly, with scarce any appearance of previous stain; some very faint, but at the same time transparent colours attended it: the most remarkable of these were a light orange, with a fringe of blue, and a yellow verging on a faint green. These colours soon disappeared.

After the silk was turned, I observed, that its texture was, in some parts, concealed by a thin film, which, as the reduction proceeded, was perceived to dart along the threads of the silk, gilding them in a beautiful manner, and exhibiting the texture very distinctly.

After some time, the mercury seemed to disappear, so as to render it doubtful whether any of it remained in the silk; but shaking it in the sun beams, I perceived bright atoms fly off; and rubbing the silk on a bit of blue paper, I observed shining metallic particles, which seemed to have lost their affinity of aggregation, for they did not unite.

One remarkable difference between this preparation of mercury and nitrate of silver, is, that no black or brown stain preceded, attended, or followed, the reduction of the mercury.

Mr. Scheele reduced a prussiate of mercury, dissolved in water, by adding iron filings and a small quantity of sulphuric acid to the solution.11

EXPERIMENT X.

COPPER.

A piece of silk was immersed in a solution of sulphate of copper, then taken out, and dried, and exposed for a considerable time to a brisk current of hydrogen gas, but no signs of reduction could be perceived.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of copper, and exposed, while wet, to the same tapid current of hydrogen gas; the appearances were the following.

After a minute, or two, the silk assumed a faint brown colour, and, on the surface opposed to the gas, a white metallic pellicle appeared, which vanished in proportion as the silk became dry: wetting the silk again, I perceived a similar pellicle appear, which also vanished, as soon as the silk dried. If the silk be kept constantly wet, the brown colour becomes much more intense, attended with a very slight tinge of red. The margins of the silk projefting beyond the verge of the glass cylinder, and therefore not exposed to the current of the gas, retained the blue colour, which the solution imparts.

In some of these white metallic pellicles there appeared a faint brown inclining to yellow, which reflected the light, though obscurely.

After the silk dried, nothing remained, but a brown stain.

EXPERIMENT XI.

LEAD.

A piece of silk was immersed in a solution of acetite of lead in distilled water; it was then dried, and exposed for some time to a stream of hydrogen gas; but underwent no perceptible change.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of lead, and exposed, while wet, to the same current of hydrogen gas; in a second, or two, the surface of the silk, opposed to the current, was coated with reduced lead, which looked like silver.

The reduction was accompanied with a brown stain, but by no means so intense as that, which attends the reduction of nitrate of silver.

The other side of the silk was opposed to the current of hydrogen gas, and soon acquired a metallic coat of the same brilliant appearance; exhibiting the texture of the silk, in a very striking manner.

It is remarkable, that lead exhibits no colour, but a light brown, during its reduction; whereas gold, silver, and mercury, display a great variety of colours, especially the two former.

After some time the lead reduced in this manner loses its metallic splendour considerably; and that in proportion as the silk dries.

EXPERIMENT XII.

TIN.

I dissolved some crystals of muriate of tin in distilled water; dipped a bit of silk in the solution; and dried it in the air: it was then exposed to a stream of hydrogen gas a considerable time; but no change or appearance of reduction, could be observed.

Another bit of silk was immersed in the same solution of tin, and exposed, while wet, to the same current of gas; after some little time, the reduction commenced, attended with a great variety of beauti- ful colours; as red, yellow, orange, green, and blue, variously intermixed.

The reduced tin disappears along with these colours, as the silk dries; nothing remaining but a feuille-morte colour.

The same solution of tin was also reduced by hydrogen gas, obtained from tin, and the muriatic acid.

These experiments do not succeed well with muriate of tin containing an excess of acid.

EXPERIMENT XIII.

ARSENIC.

A muriate of arsenic, which was prepared by digesting white oxid of arsenic in muriatic acid, and continuing the heat, till most of the acid evaporated, and left behind a soft mass of the consistence of tar, was dissolved in distilled water.

In this solution a bit of silk was immersed, and dried in the air: it was exposed to a brisk stream of hydrogen gas, obtained from zinc, and muriatic acid, but no reduction took place.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution, and exposed, while wet, to the same current of hydrogen gas; and instantly, the surface of the silk, opposed to the gas, was covered with a bright coat of reduced arsenic, accompanied with a yellow stain. In a short time the metallic lustre vanished, and nothing remained but the yellow stain.

M. Pelletier restored the acid of arsenic to its metallic state, by passing hydrogen gas through a solution of that acid, in twice its weight of water.12

EXPERIMENT XIV.

BISMUTH.

A bit of silk, which was immersed in a solution of nitrate of Bismuth in distilled water, and exposed dry to hydrogen gas, obtained from zinc, and muriatic acid, underwent no visible change.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of bismuth, and placed over a languid stream of hydrogen gas; the bismuth was soon restored to its metallic form, on the surface of the silk opposed to the elastic fluid. The reduction was attended with a reddish brown stain, intermixed with a tinge of violet.

EXPERIMENT XV.

ANTIMONY.

A bit of silk was immersed in a solution of tartrite of antimony in distilled water, and dried in the air. It was then exposed to hydrogen gas, obtained from zinc, and muriatic acid; but suffered no visible alteration.

Another bit of silk, which was dipped in the same solution of antimony, was exposed wet to a weak stream of the gas; and, in a short time, the metallic lustre appeared, accompanied by a light yellow colour.

EXPERIMENT XVI.

IRON.

A bit of silk, which was immersed in a largely diluted solution of sulphate of iron, and dried in the air, was exposed to a strong current of hydrogen gas, obtained from iron nails and diluted sulphuric acid, but no visible change was produced on the silk.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of iron, and placed wet over the same stream of hy- drogen gas; but no reduced iron could be perceived. The silk was then immersed in a glass of clear water, and transferred a very minute metallic film to the surface of that fluid.

This experiment was repeated, with a rapid current of hydrogen gas, obtained from zinc, and muriatic acid, and, in about a minute, small films of reduced iron were visible on the surface of the silk, opposed to the gas.

The silk was then immersed in water, and transferred to its surface a large metallic pellicle; parts of which were very brilliant; but other parts were dull, and much more imperfectly reduced.

EXPERIMENT XVII.

ZINC.

A bit of silk, which was dipped in a muriate of zinc largely diluted with water, and dried in the air, was exposed to a rapid current of hydrogen gas, obtained from zinc, and muriatic acid, but suffered no visible alteration.

Another piece of silk was immersed in the same solution of zinc, and exposed, while wet, to the same rapid current of hydrogen gas: in about half a minute, the metal was reduced in a very evident man- ner, on part of the silk. The silk was then dipped in a glass of clear water, and transferred a bright metallic film to its surface.

As these reductions of iron, and zinc, by hydrogen, are contrary to M. Lavoisier's table of the affinities of the oxygenous principle; I began to suspect, that the films, which were so evident, both on the silk, and the water, might be abraded, or torn from the zinc, by the muriatic acid; and elevated, and deposited on the silk by the gas.

In order to remove this doubt, I dipped a bit of the same silk in distilled water; and exposed it, while wet, to the same current of hydrogen gas, but nothing metallic could be seen on the silk; nor did it when immersed in water transfer a film, or the smallest appearance of a metal, to the surface of that fluid: and therefore, there can be no doubt of the reality of these reductions.

Dr. Priestley restored iron, and lead, to their metallic state, by heating their oxids with a burning glass in hydrogen gas.

These experiments point out an error in M. Bergman's table of elective attractions in the humid way; for he assigned the last place in that table to phlogiston, which he considered as the base of inflammable air; because he was unacquainted with any metallic reductions effected by hydrogen in the humid way.13

Having found, that water promoted, and accelerated these reductions in a very remarkable manner; I was curious to know, if alcohol, and ether, would produce the same effect. With this view, I evaporated a solution of gold in nitro-muriatic acid to dryness; when the vessel cooled, some alcohol was poured on to dissolve the salt; and immediately the vessel containing the salt, became so hot, that it could be scarcely endured by the hand; and diffused a fragrant smell, like that of ether, which, no doubt, was a species of that fluid.

EXPERIMENT XVIII.

GOLD.

In this solution of gold in alcohol, a bit of silk was dipped, and exposed to a stream of hydrogen gas, obtained from diluted sulphuric acid, and iron nails; and kept wet with alcohol: in about two minutes, the silk began to assume a brown colour, and white metallic films appeared on some parts of the surface opposed to the gas; some of these disappeared in a short time; and were succeeded by a few very small spangles of the proper colour of gold. These also soon vanished; and nothing remained but a disagreeable brown stain, intermixed with specks of a dull blue.

I sometimes found, on repeating this experiment, that no yellow films or spangles appeared; and am persuaded, that their appearance, and that of the white pellicles also, depends on the presence of water, contained in the alcohol, or the gas, and deposited on the silk.

EXPERIMENT XIX.

GOLD.

A bit of silk was immersed in a solution of gold in ether, and exposed to a stream of hydrogen gas, and kept wet with ether. The silk underwent no alteration for a few minutes; at length, it began to assume a faint brown colour, but no white, or yellow films appeared.

If this experiment be continued till the silk collects a sufficient quantity of water from the gas, some films will appear.

EXPERIMENT XX.

SILVER.

I procured some nitrate of silver, which had been fused in order to expel as much of its water as possible; and dissolved it in alcohol. I immersed a bit of silk in this solution, and exposed it to a stream of hydrogen gas, and kept it wet with alcohol: in a few seconds, the silk assumed a brown colour, which gradually became more intense: but no reduced silver appeared for several minutes; at length, a few metallic films appeared on part of the surface opposed to the gas.

EXPERIMENT XXI.

MERCURY.

A bit of silk was dipped in a solution of oxygenated muriate of mercury, and dried; it was then exposed to hydrogen gas about ten or fifteen minutes, and kept constantly wet with alcohol. The silk, during the first minutes, suffered no perceptible alteration: at length, a few small films were visible on the side of the silk opposed to the current.

EXPERIMENT XXII.

LEAD.

A bit of silk which was immersed in a solution of acetite of lead, and dried, was exposed about fifteen minutes to a stream of the gas; and kept constantly wet with alcohol; but suffered no visible change; except that a very minute film was reduced on one of its margins, which did not project beyond the verge of the glass vessel on which it was placed.

When we compare these experiments with those, in which water was used, to wet the silk, 'tis evident, that alcohol, and ether, do not promote the reduction of metals, as water does; and that the few films, which appear, when the silk is kept wet with ether or alcohol, depend entirely on water collected from the gas, or deposited by them on the silk during their evaporation.14

In order to compare the effects of hydrogen gas, obtained from water, iron nails, and muriatic acid, with that, procured from the same materials, by means of the sulphuric; I made some experiments on gold, silver, mercury, and lead, in the same man- ner, as the preceding; and the principal difference was, that the colours produced in all the pieces of silk, except that, which was dipped in acetite of lead, were much brighter, and more beautiful, than any produced, when the sulphuric acid was used.

The reduction of the lead was accompanied with its usual brown colour.

On the upper surface of a bit of silk, which was dipped in a solution of gold, a green colour instantly appeared; and soon changed to a deep olive, in proportion as the reduction advanced: now examining the under surface, I saw it coated with a bright film of reduced gold, in the middle of which a blue spangle, mixed with purple, soon began to appear: I then moistened the upper surface of the silk with water; and in a few seconds, it also was coated with reduced gold.

The blue on the other side of the silk became much more intense: the piece was now turned; and on each colour I let fall a drop of water: the drop on the blue had a blue film, the drop on the purple, had a purple film, and the drop on the yellow, a film of reduced gold.

After some time, these drops of water evaporated, and the films came again in contact with the silk: some parts of which were left bare, as generally happens, when too much water is applied.

On the under surface of a bit of silk, which was immersed in a solution of nitrate of silver in water, a coat of reduced metal was formed, with various colours, as green, blue, orange, and yellow, the beauty and brightness of which were remarkable.

In some time a muriate of silver is formed in the fibres of the silk, which on exposure to light becomes of a bluish black colour; but the whole of the silver does not undergo this change, for part of it remains in its metallic state. The colours remain a considerable time, if the silk be removed from the gas before this muriate is formed.

Hence it appears, that hydrogen gas should not be prepared with an acid, which forms an insoluble compound with the metal to be reduced.

I also found, that hydrogen gas produces different effects not only according to the difference of the acid, but also according to the difference of the metal employed to obtain it; for this gas procured from zinc or tin, and muriatic acid, did net restore gold to its proper metallic lustre, but formed on the silk, a white metalline coat like silver.

The experiments related in this chapter indicate the following conclusions.

1. Hydrogen is capable of reducing the metals in the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere.

2. Water promotes and accelerates these reductions, in a very remarkable manner.

3. Ether and alcohol do not promote these reductions, without the aid of water.

4. A variety of colours accompanies these reductions, similar to what appears, during the calcination of metals by heat and air, and depends on the same cause; viz. the quantity of oxygen combined with the metal.

These colours have not been observed hitherto; nor indeed could they, as the metals were reduced in close vessels, and in high degrees of heat.

5. These reductions often disappear.

This is commonly owing to an imperfect and partial reduction of the metal; for the acid and water remaining in that part of the metallic solution, not reduced, re-calcines these delicate films; sometimes the disappearance of the metallic lustre depends on the nature of the metal itself; thus arsenic, lead, silver, &c. suffer some degree of calcination by water and atmospheric air.

Messrs. Bergman and Keir relate instances, in which silver after being precipitated in its metallic state, was re-calcined, and disappeared.

I first imagined, that water promoted these reductions by minutely dividing the particles of the metallic salt, and by condensing the gas, and bringing its hydrogen, and the metallic oxide, within the sphere of attraction; the hydrogen either uniting to the metallic earth and reducing it, as the Phlogistians suppose, or uniting with, and separating the oxygen of the metal, and thus restoring it to the metallic form, as the Antiphlogistians maintain.

But it is evident from the experiments related, that water does not promote these reductions solely, by minutely dividing the particles of the metallic salt; for were this the case, ether and alcohol should promote the reduction of the metallic salts, which they dissolve, since they divide their particles as minutely as water can.

Since then metallic solutions in ether, and alcohol, cannot be reduced by hydrogen gas; it follows that the above supposition concerning the mode of agency of water does not account for the reduction of metals in this way.

And indeed were it true that hydrogen condensed by water reduced metals in the manner above men- tioned, it would follow, that the reduction was effected by a single affinity, which cannot be admitted; 1st. because the existence of a single affinity in such cases has not been proved; 2dly, because a double affinity always takes place in preference to a single affinity, which is demonstrated by the following facts, transcribed from the works of Mr. Kirwan.

"If a solution of silver in the nitrous acid be thrown into a mixed solution of fixed alkali and common salt, the silver will be precipitated by the marine acid of the common salt, and not by the free alkali, contained in the liquor: for a luna cornea is found."15

"I repeated the experiment with a solution of lead, and also of mercury in the nitrous acid, and the result was similar; horn lead and marine salt of mercury were formed."16

In these experiments of Messrs. Monnet and Kirwan, 'tis evident that a double affinity takes place in preference to a single one: for the nitrous acid of these different nitrates unites with the alkali of the common salt, while the muriatic acid of the latter seizes the silver, mercury, and lead, of the nitrates, and forms muriates of silver, mercury and lead: the free alkali remaining passive in the mixture.

M. Lavoisier says, "There exists only in nature, as far as we can observe them, cases of double affinity, often triple, and others perhaps still more complicated."17

Now as water does not promote these reductions merely by dissolving, and minutely dividing, the particles of the metallic salts, and condensing the hydrogen gas; and since a double affinity takes place in preference to a single affinity; it is obvious that the water must be decomposed in these reductions in the following manner.

The hydrogen of the gas unites to the oxygen of the water, while the hydrogen of the latter unites in its nascent state to the oxygen of the metal, reduces it, and forms water.

Thus what could never be effected by a single, is readily performed by a double affinity.

Hence it follows, that the hydrogen of the gas is oxygenated by the oxygen of the water, while the metal is, at the same time, restored to its combustible state. It also follows, that the quantity of water formed is double that decomposed.

CHAPTER II.
REDUCTION OF METALS
BY
PHOSPHORUS.

THE next substance, of whose effects in reducing metals in the fibres of silk, I shall treat, is phosphorus, one of the most inflammable substances wc are acquainted with.

I was for some time at a loss, how to apply it to this purpose; but learning from a note of Mr. Lewis, that it is soluble in ether, I dissolved a small quantity of it in that fluid, which can be easily effected, if the ether be good. The solution is considerably promo- ted by a gentle heat, as that of the hand, and may be made in a small phial, which should be nearly filled with the ether, and accurately corked; a common cork is preferable for this purpose, to a glass stopper; and a single grain of phosphorus is sufficient for a great number of experiments.

I sometimes applied a much greater degree of heat than the above, by placing the phial in hot sand, pressing on the cork at the same time with my finger, to prevent its being forced out by the expansion of the ether, part of which is converted into an elastic fluid, and holds some phosphorus in solution: the ether soon begins to boil; the phosphorus melts, and a strong solution is obtained in a few minutes by shaking the phial. If the solution be removed to a cool place, it frequently deposits crystals.

This manner of preparing the solution is attended with some danger, for should the phial burst or the cork be extruded, the contents will be thrown out with considerable force, and that part of the phosphorus not dissolved by the ether burn with great violence.

The only objection to this preparation of phosphorus is the ether, which must necessarily modify the result, and prevent that simplicity so desirable in experiment.

But, after some observation, it was perceived, that the ether flies off and leaves the phosphorus pure, and minutely divided in the fibres of the silk; the ether, from its great volatility, first evaporates, and at the same time, produces a very considerable degree of cold, which effectually prevents the evaporation, and combustion, of the phosphorus.

After the ether evaporates, the cold ceases, and the combustion of the phosphorus commences, attended with white fumes, which continue till the whole is consumed, if no other power intervene.

Hence it is evident, that this preparation of phosphorus has a simplicity and elegance not always to be obtained.

It has also another great advantage in experiments of this kind; for it does not change in the smallest degree, the white colour of silk, during its slow combustion, which is not attended with heat sufficient to affect the most delicate colour. This property of not affecting the colour of the silk renders observation and experiment more accurate; as whatever change supervenes, must depend either on the metallic solution itself, or on the action of the phosphorus on the same. But this advantage is confined to a certain range of the thermometer; for if the heat be increased to about 86° of Fahrenheit, and the silk be dry, the phosphorus is apt to set fire to it.

EXPERIMENT I.

GOLD.

I immersed a bit of silk in a solution of gold in ether, and after the ether evaporated, dropped on it some of the solution of phosphorus, which diffused itself through the silk like a drop of oil, and formed a circumscribed spot, whose limits, as the ether evaporated, assumed a brown colour, which soon diffused itself equally over every part to which the solution of phosphorus was applied; but the parts of the silk, to which the latter did not reach, retained the yellow colour, which the solution of gold gave them.

The silk viewed by transmitted light presented the same colours, except that the limits of the brown appeared more intense, and seemed to border on a faint purple.

Examining the silk next day, I found that the whole of the brown stain acquired a faint shade of purple, which was most evident on the margins of the stain.

EXPERIMENT II.

GOLD.

I dipped a bit of silk in the solution of gold in ether, and after it was well dried, half of it was wetted with distilled water; the other half remaining dry: the solution of phosphorus was applied to both the moist and dry parts of the silk; instantly the part wetted with the water began to acquire a purple colour; and soon after the metallic splendour of the gold appeared; but that part which was kept dry acquired only a brown stain, similar to that described in the preceding experiment.

I repeated these experiments many times, and always found, that the gold was reduced only in proportion to the water applied.

Finding water promoted the reduction of gold by phosphorus, I began to form various conjectures about its mode of action; I first supposed it acted by holding the particles of the salt minutely divided, thus diminishing their attraction of cohesion, and consequently increasing their chymical attraction.

The truth of this supposition might, I thought, be decided by using ether and alcohol, instead of water, to wet the silk, avoiding aqueous moisture, as much as possible; accordingly I made the following experiments, which were frequently repeated with nearly the same result.

EXPERIMENT III.

GOLD.

A piece of silk was immersed in the solution of phosphorus; as soon as the ether evaporated, and the phosphorus began to fume, an ethereal solution of gold wns dropped on the silk, which immediately got a brown colour; the piece was kept constantly wet with ether, in some time a purple tinge appeared on parts of the silk, and shortly after small films of reduced gold appeared; the silk was now remarkably wet, and seemed to have a great power of collecting water; this I supposed was partly attracted from the air by the salt, and phosphorous acid formed during the combustion, which has a powerful attraction for water, and partly deposited in the silk by the ether during its evaporation.

In order to determine if the ether during its evaporation deposited water in the silk, I kept a bit of silk wet with ether for a few minutes, and found, that after the evaporation ceased, the silk was moist; but this humidity was not so great, as that observed in the silk, to which the ethereal solutions of phosphorus and gold were applied.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the ethereal solution of gold, and after the ether evaporated, the solution of phosphorus was applied; a brown colour was produced; the silk was kept wet with ether, and in a short time, a purple tinge appeared on parts of it; but chiefly at the margin of the stain, which gradually diffused itself over the whole.

The only difference between this and the preceding experiment on gold is the order, in which the solution of gold and phosphorus were applied to the silk, but there is a considerable difference in the result, for in this the brown and purple colours were formed much more slowly, and no particles of reduced gold appeared till after a much longer time.

EXPERIMENT IV.

GOLD.

A piece of silk was immersed in the solution of phosphorus, and when the white fumes began to rise, a solution of gold in alcohol was applied to the silk, which was, kept wet with alcohol, a brown tinge which soon changed to a purple, appeared on different parts, and in a little time after, a very small film of reduced gold was visible on a part of the margin.

In another experiment, conducted in the same manner, the reduction was more evident.

The solution of gold used in this experiment was very rich, and had a great attraction for water, for bits of silk tinged with it, could not be dried without difficulty, and after they were removed to a cool place, they very soon became moist again. This is more or less the case with solutions of gold in general.

EXPERIMENT V.

GOLD.

A bit of silk was dipped in a solution of gold in alcohol and dried, then some of the solution of phosphorus was poured on the silk, a brown and then a purple colour appeared, and in some parts a small portion of the gold was reduced, the reduction was very obscure, but became gradually more evident, in proportion as it attracted water from the air. The silk was occasionally wetted with alcohol.

This experiment was repeated, with this difference, that the silk was not kept wet with alcohol, and no reduced gold could be perceived.

EXPERIMENT VI.

GOLD.

In order to exclude water more effectually, a small phial was carefully dried by placing it in hot sand, and then corked, to prevent the access of moisture from the air; when the phial cooled, it was nearly filled with ether, and a small bit of phosphorus dropped into it, it was then corked and replaced on the hot sand, the phosphorus soon melted, and a strong solution was obtained by shaking the phial.

Into this solution a small bit of silk, which was dipped in a rich solution of gold, and carefully dried, was introduced; the silk immediately got a brown tinge, but not a particle of reduced gold could be perceived. The solution in a short time became turbid, and deposited a brown powder. The colour of the precipitate was exactly the same, as that which the silk acquired. The experiment was continued about three months, and carefully observed, but no other change could be perceived; at the end of this time the silk was taken out of the phial, and the solution of phosphorus was found capable of reducing gold and silver by the aid of water.

EXPERIMENT VII.

GOLD.

In order to contrast the effects of water with those of ether, and alcohol, more fully, a piece of silk was immersed in a solution of nitro-muriate of gold in water, and dried in the air about twelve hours; during which time the yellow tinge, the solution of gold gave the silk, remained unchanged: the solution of phosphorus was then applied; a brown stain appeared, the ether soon evaporated; the phosphorus began to fume; and the silk acquired a purple colour; but not a particle of reduced gold could be perceived. The purple tinge in this bit of silk was much more intense, and more equal, than in the pieces, in which ether and alcohol were used.

EXPERIMENT VIII.

GOLD.

I dipped a piece of silk in the solution of phosphorus, when the ether evaporated, and the phosphorus began to fume, a solution of gold in water was applied; instantly the silk was covered with a splendid coat of reduced gold.

Nothing can be more striking than this experiment, which was repeated times without number, or demonstrates the necessity of water in these reductions in a more convincing manner.

This piece, viewed by transmitted light, had a purple colour with a considerable tinge of blue; and the margin of the reduced gold was fringed with purple.

EXPERIMENT IX.

GOLD.

Thinking the phosphorus applied in the form of vapour through the medium of water might be more effectual than a solution of it in ether, I immersed a small bit of silk in an aqueous solution of gold, and suffered it to dry a little; it was then suspended in a phial over a little water, into which a small bit of phosphorus was previously introduced: the phial was then corked, and placed on hot sand: the phosphorus began to melt, and ascend in white vapours, which, as soon as they reached the lower end of the silk, gave it a brown tinge, succeeded by a purple; and the gold began to assume its metallic splendour: in a short time these appearances were evident over the whole silk.

The following propositions are deducible from these experiments.

1. Water does not promote the reduction of gold merely by dissolving, and minutely dividing, the particles of the salt, and thus diminishing their attraction of cohesion, and consequently increasing their chymical attraction, as I first supposed; for were this the case, ether and alcohol, which equally dissolve and divide the salt, should produce the same effect.

2. Ether and alcohol do not promote these reductions without the aid of water; for it is evident from the experiments related, that the few particles of reduced gold which appear when they are employed, depend entirely on the quantity of water which they leave in the silk during their evaporation, and that attracted from the air by the solution of gold, and by the phosphorus during its combustion, both of which have a strong attraction for water.

3. Phosphorus does not reduce gold by giving the metallic earth phlogiston, as the Phlogistians suppose; for were this opinion true, a solution of gold in ether, or alcohol, should be reduced by the phosphorus as effectually as a solution of gold in water is.

4. Phosphorus does not reduce gold, by combining with, and separating, the oxygen of the gold, as the Antiphlogistians assert; for were this the case, the particles of the phosphorus so attenuated by the ether, should reduce a solution of gold in ether, or alcohol, as well as a solution of gold in water, since the impediment opposed by the attraction of cohesion is equally removed in both cases.

I shall conclude these remarks on the reduction of gold with the following experiment, which often amused me.

EXPERIMENT X.

GOLD.

A small bit of silk was immersed in a solution of gold in ether, and dried; then the solution of phosphorus was applied, which changed the yellow colour of the silk to a brown: when the phosphorus began to fume, I placed the silk on the palm of my hand, and breathed on it a considerable time; a purple tinge gradually succeeded the brown, and in some little time after, the metallic lustre of the gold began to appear.

The same experiment succeeds with a solution of gold in alcohol.

Another bit of silk, treated in the same manner, was placed over the vapour of warm water for some time; the same appearances took place, and particles of reduced gold were evident in the silk.

If the water, whence the vapour arises, be too hot, the heat retards, and sometimes prevents, the reduction, by volatilizing the phosphorus.

EXPERIMENT XI.

SILVER.

I dipped a bit of silk in a solution of fused nitrate of silver in alcohol, and dried it in the air: then some of the solution of phosphorus was applied, which produced a brown stain, whose margin, after a few minutes exposure to the air, acquired a livid white appearance, caused by a partial and imperfect reduction of the silver.

This, however, would not be taken by a person unacquainted with experiments of this kind for reduced silver.

EXPERIMENT XII.

SILVER.

A bit of silk was immersed in the solution of phosphorus; as soon as the ether evaporated, and the phosphorus began to fume; a few drops of the solution of silver in alcohol were applied: immediately a black stain, intermixed with some brown, appeared; and, after some time, obscure films of reduced silver presented themselves; these appeared on different parts of the stain, but were so minute as to be scarcely visible. The only difference between this and the preceding experiment is the order, in which the solutions were applied; but even this modifies the result in some measure.

That these imperfect reductions depended on water, deposited in the silk by the alcohol, during its evaporation, or attracted from the air by the phosphorus during its combustion, will appear from the following experiment.

EXPERIMENT XIII.

SILVER.

A small phial was well dried in hot sand, then corked, and removed to a cool place: after the phial cooled, it was nearly filled with ether, and a small bit of phosphorus which was repeatedly washed in alcohol to free it from any aqueous moisture, that might adhere to it, was introduced; the phial was then corked and placed in hot sand; when the phosphorus melted, I shook the phial and obtained a strong solution.

Into this solution a small bit of silk, which was dipped in a solution of silver in alcohol, and dried, was introduced; the phial was corked, the silk instantly assumed a brown colour, but not a particle of reduced silver could be seen, though the experiment was continued about three months, nor did the solution of phosphorus become turbid, or deposit any precipitate, as happened in similar experiments on gold.

At the end of this period the silk was taken out of the phial wetted with water, and suspended in a window, and after a considerable time, reduced silver was manifest on different parts of the silk.

With the solution of phosphorus, in which the silk stood during that time, I reduced gold and silver with the assistance of water.

In order to compare the effects of water with those of ether and alcohol, I made the following experiments.

EXPERIMENT XIV.

SILVER.

I dipped a bit of silk in a solution of nitrate of silver in water, and dried it at the fire; the silk thus dried retained its white colour, the solution of phosphorus was then applied, and immediately produced a brown colour, which soon, in proportion as the phosphorus fumed acquired a deeper tinge verging on. black, and slight signs of reduction appeared after a little time on the margin of the stain.

Another bit of silk, treated in the same manner, but dried much better, exhibited still fainter signs of reduction, for the brown stain did not appear on this: piece as soon as on the former, nor was it so intense; however, after some minutes exposure to the air, the stain became deeper, and its margin acquired a livid, white appearance, owing to a partial reduction of the silver.

It has been often remarked, that the reduction commences first on the margin of the stain, which the solution of phosphorus and that of the metal produce in the silk; I was a long time at a loss to account for this appearance, but the cause was acci- dentally discovered; for happening to spill a few drops of the solution of phosphorus on a table, I observed, that as they evaporated, watery circles were formed round the spaces on which the drops fell, and that all the parts within the circles were dry.

This explains why the reduction begins on the margin of the stain.

I observed the same of alcohol, for if it be dropped on a level surface, it leaves a watery ring behind, though not near so soon as a solution of phosphorus in ether does; this is the reason why alcohol seems to promote the reduction of some metals; I say seems, for it does not promote it, but in proportion to the quantity of water it contains, or attracts from the air, and deposits in the silk during its evaporation.

How essential water is to the reduction of metals will appear from the following experiment.

EXPERIMENT XV.

SILVER.

I immersed a piece of silk in the solution of phosphorus, and after the ether evaporated, and the phosphorus began to fume, a solution of nitrate of silver in water was applied; instantly the silver was restored to its metallic splendour.

This experiment is very amusing, and well calculated to strike the beholder with surprise.

The reduction is sometimes attended with spangles of a beautiful blue, which appear chiefly where the solution of silver is most abundant.

The solution of silver is commodiously applied by a camel's hair pencil.

I also tried the effects of the vapour of phosphorus on bits of silk dipped in a solution of nitrate of silver in water, and exposed to the vapour, in the same manner as in experiment the 9th, and the silver was always reduced; but a solution of phosphorus in ether seems preferable to the vapour.

A small glass tube, resembling a thermometer, with its bulb terminating in a smaller and nearly capillary tube, I found useful, and economic, especially in experiments on gold: by immersing the smaller end in the metallic solution, and inspiring through the tube at the same time, the bulb may be filled: by this means a single drop, or more if necessary, may be applied to the silk, and thus a great number of experiments can be made on a single grain, or a much less quantity of gold, or any other metal.

This little instrument may be used also to app\y the solution of phosphorus to the silk; and it was by using it for this purpose, I discovered, that phosphorus has not the power of reducing silver without the aid of water; for blowing the solution of phosphorus from the tube on bits of silk, which had been dipped in a solution of silver and dried, I was surprised to find films of reduced silver frequently appear; whereas none appeared, when I applied the solution of phosphorus in a different manner: this unexpected event often occurred, before I learned the cause; at length I suspected it might depend on the moisture of the breath; and I was soon convinced by moistening the silk with water, that the suspicion was well founded.

It is evident from these experiments on silver, that water is essential to the reduction of this metal by phosphorus; and that ether and alcohol do not promote it.

It is also evident that these experiments, and those made on the reduction of gold, mutually illustrate each other; and confirm the conclusions drawn from them.

EXPERIMENT XVI.

PLATINA.

I immersed a bit of silk in a solution of nitro-muriate of platina in distilled water and dried it in the air; the solution of phosphorus was then applied to the silk but no appearance of reduction could be perceived.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the solution of phosphorus; when the ether evaporated and the phosphorus began to fume, the solution of platina was applied to the silk, and in some time, delicate films of reduced platina were visible where the water was most abundant. These films of platina commonly disappear, and nothing remains but a brown tinge which, however, is more intense than what the solution of platina alone gives the silk.

To succeed in this experiment the silk should be replete with phosphorus, which is easily done by applying the solution twice or thrice, and waiting after each application till the fumes begin to appear. It is also necessary to keep the silk constantly wet with water. Sometimes it requires from ten to twenty minutes to reduce platina in this manner.

EXPERIMENT XVII.

MERCURY.

I dipped a bit of silk in a solution of oxygenated muriate of mercury and dried it in the air, then the solution of phosphorus was applied; when the ether evaporated and the phosphorus began to fume, a yellow stain commenced on the margin and gradually appeared over the whole.

To compare the effects of different degrees of moisture, I immersed a bit of silk in the same solution of mercury, and dried it carefully at the fire; the solution of phosphorus was then applied; the silk began to fume, but no change except a very slight ring of a yellow hue appeared. The rest of the silk retained its white colour.

Another bit of silk was immersed in the solution of phosphorus; when the ether evaporated and the phosphorus began to fume, the same solution of mercury in distilled water was applied, and in a few seconds a bright film of reduced mercury was visible on the margin of the part to which the metallic solution was applied, and after some time appeared on the whole. The reduction was attended with the colours of the rainbow.

After a little time these colours vanish and the metallic film becomes much more obscure, according as the silk dries, and is succeeded by a yellow stain.

EXPERIMENT XVIII.

MERCURY.

A bit of silk was dipped in a solution of nitrate of mercury in distilled water, and dried at the fire; then the solution of phosphorus was applied; and when it began to fume, a brown stain commenced at the margin, which soon diffused itself over the whole and gradually acquired a faint tinge of black.

Another piece of silk, treated in the same manner, but dried in the air, exhibited the same appearances; except that the brown tinge verged more on black.

Another bit of silk was immersed in the solution of phosphorus, and when it began to fume, the solution of nitrate of mercury was applied; a brown colour instantly appeared, accompanied with a film of reduced mercury, which was most evident where the metallic solution was most abundant. This film soon disappeared and was succeeded by a black stain, in which, however, reduced mercury was visible. No colours but black and brown appeared in this experiment.

It appears from these experiments on mercury, that the reduction kept pace with the quantity of water present.

EXPERIMENT XIX.

COPPER.

A piece of silk was immersed in a solution of sulphate of copper and dried in the air: then a strong solution of phosphorus was applied; the silk acquired a brown colour, but no other visible alteration occurred.

Another piece of silk was dipped in the same solution of copper and dried at the fire much better than the preceding; the solution of phosphorus was applied; when the ether evaporated and the phosphorus began to fume, a brown tinge commenced on the margin of the silk, and gradually diffused itself over the whole; but the stain was by no means so intense as that produced in the preceding piece; so that there can be no doubt that the difference was owing to the different degrees of moisture in the silk.

After this piece remained in the air for some time, the brown tinge became more intense, a proof that it attracted water from the air. This difference in the appearances of pieces dried in the air and at the fire, I frequently remarked.

EXPERIMENT XX.

COPPER.

A strong solution of phosphorus was applied to a piece of silk, when the ether evaporated and the phosphorus began to fume, a solution of sulphate of copper was applied; a brown stain was instantly produced, and its margins were soon covered with a white metallic film, parts of which, after some time, verged on the colour of copper, intermixed with purple, green and blue. If the solution of phosphorus be weak, which is always the case when the ether is bad, nothing appears on the silk but the brown stain and the white metallic film. As the silk dries most of these appearances vanish; but some of the blue tinge survives, and the silk looks very unseemly.

A bit of silk was immersed in the same solution of copper, and exposed to the vapour of phosphorus, as in experiment the 9th, but no change was produced on the silk, except a few brown spots, though the heat was such that the vapour filled the phial, and circulated through it: the vapour corroded a brass pin which was used to suspend the silk in the phial. This induced me to try its effects on copper, which was corroded by it in a remarkable manner, and changed into a black substance resembling a mixture of charcoal and oil. It appears then that phosphorus is ill adapted to the reduction of this metal.

EXPERIMENT XXI.

TIN.

A bit of silk was immersed in a solution of muriate of tin in distilled water, and dried in the air, the solution of phosphorus was then applied to the silk, and though it fumed considerably, no change whatever could be perceived in the colour of the silk, nor was there the smallest appearance of reduction.

I poured some of the solution of phosphorus on a bit of silk, and when it began to fume the solution of tin was applied; after a few seconds, white metallic films appeared, first on the margin, and were gradually diffused over that part of the silk to which the muriate of tin was applied, a yellow colur intermixed with red sometimes attends the reduction. After some little time these films of reduced tin vanish, and scarcely leave a stain behind.

I did not succeed in reducing acetite of lead, muriate of arsenic, or sulphates of iron, and zinc, in this way.

These experiments on tin shew that water is essential to its reduction by phosphorus, and give additional force to the preceding conclusions.

M. Sage discovered that gold, silver, &c. are precipitated from their solutions in the metallic form, by pieces of phosphorus, which are covered at the same time with bright coats of gold, silver, &c.

To determine if water were essential to these reductions performed by M. Sage, I made the following experiments.

EXPERIMENT XXII.

GOLD.

Some solution of phosphorus in ether was poured into a china cup, and a few drops of the ethereal solution of gold were added, instantly a brown powder was precipitated similar to what appeared in experiment the 6th, but no gold in its metallic form could be perceived.

EXPERIMENT XXIII.

GOLD.

A solution of nitro-muriate of gold in water was poured into a china cup, containing a solution of phosphorus in ether, instantly the gold began to assume its metallic splendour, attended with a variety of colours, as purple, blue, and red, the beauty of which cannot be described; the quantity of the blue was gradually diminished, and what remained, was dispersed over the surface in small films, intermixed with spangles of reduced gold. Most of the blue films were of a circular figure, some had a central speck of ruby red, and were fringed with purple; some had a round central speck of a darker blue than the surrounding parts, and some were of an irregular figure, fringed with purple or ruby red. I often observed these blue films assume the real colour of gold without suffering any intermediate change of colour, and I think, I observed the same of one of the largest specks of ruby red, that appeared in this experiment. All these colours disappeared, when the reduction was completed.

The variety of colours, which these films assume, depends on the different degrees of reduction; that is to say, on the quantity of oxygen combined with the metal, in proportion as the metal is deprived of the oxygen, it assumes various colours, which often succeed each other in a regular order, shewing the different stages of the reduction; thus when gold is reduced, the first perceptible change is a green which soon becomes olive, this is succeeded by blue and purple, and sometimes by a ruby red; the purple tinge is a mixture of blue and red.

The various colours which metals and their calces communicate to glass and other substances, are explicable on these principles, and the difficulty of obtaining a ruby-coloured glass by gold is readily understood from the facility with which that metal parts with oxygen.

EXPERIMENT XXIV.

GOLD.

A thread was passed by means of a needle through a small bit of phosphorus which was freed from any moisture that might adhere to it, by immersing it for some time in alcohol, it was then suspended by means of the thread in a solution of gold in ether, contained in a phial, which was carefully dried in hot sand; in a few minutes the solution became turbid, an effervescence commenced, and a brown precipitate was formed; according as the precipitate fell the solution became clear, lost its yellow colour, and the whole of the gold seemed to have been precipitated, but not a particle of reduced gold could be seen.

Another bit of phosphorus was suspended in the same manner in a solution of nitro-muriate of gold in water, and in a few minutes got a splendid coat of reduced gold.

EXPERIMENT XXV.

SILVER.

A few drops of a solution of fused nitrate of silver in alcohol were poured into a china cup containing a solution of phosphorus in ether, instantly a black precipitate with a tinge of brown was formed, but no silver in its metallic state could be perceived.

After some time the precipitate attracted moisture from the air, and some films of reduced silver appeared.

The same experiment was made in a phial, which was corked to exclude the moisture of the air, and nothing but the black precipitate appeared.

Some of the same solution of silver was diluted with water, and dropped on a solution of phosphorus in ether, and instantly films of reduced silver floated on the surface.

EXPERIMENT XXVI.

SILVER.

A bit of phosphorus was suspended by a thread in some of the same solution of silver in alcohol, contained in a phial carefully dried, a black precipitate with a tinge of brown soon appeared, but no silver in its metallic state could be observed; part of the precipitate adhered to the phosphorus, and part fell to the bottom of the phial.

In another experiment made in a phial not sufficiently dried, a few small films of reduced silver were observed on the sides of the phial, but not a particle of silver in its metallic form could be seen on the phosphorus.

Another bit of phosphorus was suspended in a diluted solution of nitrate of silver in water, and in some hours, the phosphorus was covered with reduced silver.

The case of silver, which covered the phosphorus prevented its spontaneous combustion in the air; the same was observed of the bit of phosphorus coated with gold.

Hence it appears, that M. Sage's success in reducing metals by phosphorus, depended on the water of the metallic solution.

These experiments were often repeated with nearly the same result, but some variety often occurs, depending on various circumstances, as the strength of the metallic solution, and that of the phosphorus, the quantity of water present, and the purity of the materials employed.

It is difficult to obtain ether, or alcohol, with the least possible quantity of water, and equally difficult to expel all moisture from the surface of glass; for this reason the bits of phosphorus in the experiments made with alcohol and ether, were suspended by threads, so as not to touch the sides of the glass.

I shall conclude this chapter with a general view of the inferences, which seem naturally to flow from these experiments with phosphorus.

1. Water is essential to the reduction of metals by phosphorus, for these experiments shew that the re- duction is effected only in proportion to the quantity of water present.

2. Phosphorus does not reduce the metals by giving them phlogiston.

3. Phosphorus does not reduce the metals by uniting with, and separating their oxygen.

How then is the reduction effected? are we not to conclude, that it is effected by the decomposition of the water, in the following manner?

The phosphorus attracts the oxygen of the water, while the hydrogen of the latter unites in its nascent state with the oxygen of the metal, and effects the reduction.

Hence it follows, that the phosphorus is oxygenated by the oxygen of the water, while the metal is restored to its combustible state.

Thus what could never be affected by a single, is readily performed by a double affinity, which always takes place in preference to a single affinity, as the experiments of Messrs. Monnet and Kirwan, mentioned in the preceding chapter, shew.

It is well known, that phosphorus kept in water acquires an oxygenated crust, which could not happen without a decomposition of the water; this fact serves to confirm the explanation here offered.

And indeed the decomposition of water in these experiments must be granted, or it must be supposed, that water itself reduces the metals by uniting with their earths, and constituting their phlogiston; or by uniting with, and separating their oxygen; suppositions repugnant to our present knowledge of chymistry.

CHAPTER III.
REDUCTION OF METALS
BY
SULPHUR.

THOUGH Sulphur, as far as my reading extends, has seldom been considered as a reducer of the metals, yet as it holds a distinguished rank among combustible bodies, analogy led me to examine its powers in reducing and fixing the metals in the fibres of silk.

The vapour of sulphur appeared to be the most simple form in which it could be applied to this pur- pose, and may be obtained by placing a phial containing flowers of sulphur in hot sand; as the sulphur melts, it assumes the form of vapour, which soon fills the phial, expels the atmospheric air, and bears a considerable heat before it inflames; a bit of silk prepared for the experiment may be held over the vapour as it issues from the phial, or immersed in it. The neck of the phial should be of a convenient size for this purpose.

But these experiments are more conveniently made by means of a sulphurous match, and a glass funnel, in which the silk imbued with the metallic solution may be suspended by a thread passed through it, and made fast with a cork, which also serves to confine the vapour.

The glass is then placed on a table, and by moving it a little beyond the verge of the same, a lighted match is readily introduced, which, as soon as the glass is filled with vapour, may be withdrawn; the vapour is confined by making the glass glide back on the table; and thus the phenomena of the experiment can be easily observed.

Though the vapour obtained in this manner be chiefly sulphurous acid gas; yet its effects are not less interesting on that account.

EXPERIMENT I.

GOLD.

A bit of silk was dipped in a solution of gold in ether and dried, it was then suspended in the glass funnel, and exposed for some time to the vapour obtained from a burning match; but no change could be perceived, except that the silk became a little brown.

Another bit of silk prepared in the same manner was immersed in the vapour of sulphur, formed in a phial placed in hot sand, with the same result.

EXPERIMENT II.

GOLD.

A piece of silk was immersed in a solution of nitro muriate of gold in water, suspended in the glass funnel, and exposed while wet to vapour of sulphur, formed by a burning match; no sooner did the vapour touch the silk than the reduction commenced, and in a few seconds the whole piece was covered with a splendid coat of reduced gold, permanent and retentive of its lustre, but had a few specks of a dull violet hue.

The silk viewed by transmitted light appeared of a beautiful blue colour; and being removed from the vapour, and suspended in the air, began in about ten minutes to exhale a vapour which continued about two hours, and smelled acid and pungent.

Another bit of silk, dipped in the same solution of gold and dried, was wetted with alcohol and exposed to the same vapour: the silk acquired a brownish hue, and a small white metallic film appeared on its lower end, where the alcohol most abounded: the silk was then wetted with water and replaced in the vapour; instantly a lively purple with a bright pellicle of reduced gold appeared.

EXPERIMENT III.

SILVER.

A piece of silk was immersed in a solution of nitrate of silver in water, and suspended in the air of a dark closet to dry; the silk retained its white colour, though it remained in the air twenty-four hours; it was then exposed fourteen hours to the vapour obtained from a burning match; but suffered no change, except that it acquired a brown tinge: it was now wetted with alcohol, and replaced in the vapour for some time; no signs of reduction appearing, it was wetted again with the alcohol and exposed to the vapour: but still no signs of reduction could be perceived: I then wetted the silk with distilled water, replaced it in the sulphureous vapour; and in about a minute reduced silver appeared.

EXPERIMENT IV.

SILVER.

I dipped a bit of silk in a solution of nitrate of silver in distilled water, and exposed it, while wet, to the vapour of sulphur, as in the preceding experiment; in a few seconds the silver appeared in its metallic form, attended with a variety of lively colours: the most remarkable of these were a pleasant blue, orange, purple and yellow, which soon disappeared: the reduced silver also disappeared in a great measure, some faint traces only remaining. The silk was removed from the vapour into the air, but exhaled no vapour, as happened in experiment the second.

A small bit of sulphur was suspended in a phial containing a solution of nitrate of silver in water; and after some weeks the sulphur was coated with reduced silver of no great lustre.

EXPERIMENT V.

PLATINA.

A bit of silk was immersed in a solution of nitro-muriate of the ore of platina in distilled water, and dried in the air; it was then suspended in the glass funnel, and exposed to the vapour of a burning match: but no signs of reduction could be observed; the silk retained the colour the solution gave it.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of platina, and exposed, while wet, to the sulphureous vapour; in a few seconds the reduction was very evident. The silk was immerged in a glass of clear water, and transferred bright films of reduced platina to the surface of that fluid; most of them were of the same colour as the spangles in the ore of platina; and some were distinguished by lively blue and purple colours.

Another bit of silk, dipped in the same solution of platina, was immersed, while wet, in the vapour of sulphur, formed in a phial placed in hot sand; the reduction soon commenced, and was much more per- fect and permanent than in pieces exposed to the vapour obtained from ignited matches.

It is remarkable that sulphur reduced this metal much better than phosphorus or hydrogen gas did, but the reduced platina disappears after some time, and leaves nothing behind but a brown stain.

If the films be transferred from the silk to water, they may be preserved in their metallic form.

EXPERIMENT VI.

MERCURY.

A bit of silk was immersed in a solution of nitrate of mercury in distilled water, and dried; parts of the silk immediately acquired a slate colour; the silk was then exposed to the vapour of sulphur, obtained from a burning match, but it suffered no change, except that the colour became a little more intense.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of mercury, and exposed while wet to the same vapour; the reduction instantly commenced in a very evident manner, accompanied with several colours, as blue, purple and yellow.

The silk was removed from the vapour and soon lost most of its lustre, which was succeeded by a slate colour, through which some particles of reduced mercury were observed to shine.

EXPERIMENT VII.

MERCURY.

A bit of silk was immersed in a solution of oxygenated muriate of mercury in water and dried in the air; it was then exposed to the sulphureous vapour obtained from a burning match; but the silk underwent no visible change. This solution of mercury does not change the white colour of silk, as that of nitrate does.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of oxygenated muriate of mercury, and exposed, while wet, to the vapour; in a few seconds reduced mercury appeared, unattended by any colour, except a slight tinge of citron yellow on part of the silk. After some time the whole of the reduced mercury vanished.

EXPERIMENT VIII.

COPPER.

A piece of silk was immersed in a solution of sulphate of copper and dried; It was then suspended in the glass funnel and exposed to the vapour obtained from a burning match; but the silk suffered no change, retaining the colour, which the solution gave it.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of copper and exposed, while wet, to the vapour of an ignited match; in a short time a white metallic film appeared, accompanied with a brown tinge: the silk becoming dry was wetted with water and exposed to a brisk vapour from another match; the film became more evident and parts of it verged on yellow, bordering on a copper colour. After some time this white metallic film disappears, and nothing remains but a light brown stain.

EXPERIMENT IX.

LEAD.

A bit of silk was immersed in a solution of acetite of lead in distilled water, and dried in the air; it was then exposed to the sulphureous vapour of a burning match; but underwent no visible change whatever.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of lead, and exposed, while wet, to the vapour; reduced lead soon appeared all over the silk; but after some time this reduced lead disappears, unless it be transferred to the surface of water.

EXPERIMENT X.

TIN.

A bit of silk was immersed in a solution of muriate of tin in distilled water, and dried in the air: it was then exposed to the vapour obtained from a burning match, which soon filled the glass; but produced no visible change on the silk.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of tin, and exposed, while wet, to the sulphureous vapour; and in a few seconds reduced tin appeared all over the silk; but the tin soon disappears, if not transferred to water.

EXPERIMENT XI.

ARSENIC.

A bit of silk was immersed in a solution of muriate of arsenic in distilled water, and dried in the air; it was then exposed to the vapour of sulphur, obtained from a burning match; but the silk suffered no apparent alteration.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of arsenic, and exposed, while wet, to the vapour: in a few seconds the arsenic was reduced, but not in a very evident manner; the silk was immerged in water, and several bright films of reduced arsenic floated on the surface of that fluid.

EXPERIMENT XII.

BISMUTH.

A bit of silk was immersed in a solution of nitrate of bismuth in distilled water, and dried in the air; it was then exposed to the vapour of sulphur obtained from a burning match, but no signs of reduction appeared.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of bismuth, and exposed, while wet, to the sulphureous vapour; the bismuth was soon reduced, accompanied with a brown stain, but the metallic lustre soon disappeared.

EXPERIMENT XIII.

ANTIMONY.

A piece of silk was immersed in a solution of tartrite of antimony in water, and dried; it was then exposed to the vapour of a burning match; but no change could be observed; nor did the silk immerged in water deposit any films on its surface.

Another piece of silk was dipped in the same solution of antimony, and exposed, while wet, to the vapour: the silk, in a few seconds, acquired a yellow colour, and a bright bluish film of reduced antimony appeared on the lower end of the silk, where the water was most abundant: the silk was then immerged in a glass of water, and transferred a large pellicle of reduced antimony to the surface of that fluid.

EXPERIMENT XIV.

IRON.

A bit of silk was immersed in a largely diluted solution of sulphate of iron in distilled water, and dried in the air, it was then exposed to the vapour of sulphur obtained from a burning match; after some time the colour of the silk became a little brown, but no reduced iron could be seen, nor did the silk immerged in a glass of clear water transfer any thing metallic to its surface.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of iron, and exposed while wet to the sulphureous vapour; in a short time the silk was withdrawn, and a minute shining film of a livid white colour, was visible on its lower margin, where the water most abounded; the silk was then immerged in a glass of water, and transferred a large film of reduced iron to its surface.

This experiment succeeded also with the vapour of sulphur formed in a phial placed on hot sand. The films of reduced iron were seldom visible on the silk, but were soon rendered visible by transferring them to water.

EXPERIMENT XV.

ZINC.

A piece of silk was dipped in a diluted solution of sulphate of zinc and dried, it was then exposed to the vapour obtained from a burning match, no change whatever could be perceived; the silk was immerged in a glass of water, but deposited no film on its surface.

Another piece of silk was dipped in the same solution of zinc, and immersed while wet in the vapour of sulphur formed in a phial placed on hot sand; in about half a minute the silk was withdrawn from the vapour, and some parts of it had a shining livid appearance, which I took for reduced zinc; in order to determine if the reduction were real, the silk was immerged in a glass of clear water, and transferred to its surface a bright film of reduced zinc.

If the silk be kept too long in the vapour, some sulphur will be condensed on its surface, and give it a yellow colour; if it be then dipped in a glass of water, it will deposit both the sulphur and the metallic films on its surface, but the appearance of the sulphur is so different from that of the reduced metal, that they are easily distinguished,

Another bit of silk was immersed in a largely diluted solution of muriate of zinc, and exposed while wet, to the vapour obtained from a burning match; the silk being withdrawn exhibited a few minute shining films on its lower end, and on immersion in water left bright films of reduced zinc floating on the surface of that fluid.

Very often these films cannot be seen, until they are transferred to water, which I found a very useful test in doubtful cases; they are better seen in the gray light than in sunshine.

These experiments on the reduction of metals by sulphur were often repeated with nearly the same result; but some variety occurs depending on the quantity of water present, the strength of the metallic solution, and sulphureous vapour, and also on the time the silk is exposed to the vapour.

When the experiments are made in a phial placed in hot sand, part of the metallic solution frequently drops from the silk, and falling on the bottom, or sides of the phial is reduced, covering these parts with a metallic crust, on which the sulphur soon reacts, and changes the greater part into a sulphure. The phial commonly cracks.

The following conclusions are deducible from the experiments related in this chapter.

1. Water is essential to the reduction of metals by sulphur, for this effect is always in proportion to the quantity of water present.

2. Alcohol does not promote these reductions without the aid of water.

3. Sulphur does not reduce the metals by giving them phlogiston, nor by uniting with and separating their oxygen, for were either of these opinions just, the sulphur so minutely divided by heat, should reduce metallic solutions in alcohol as effectually as it does metallic solutions in water.

When we compare these reductions by sulphur, with those effected by phosphorus, and consider that water is essential to both, we must conclude, that the reduction is effected in the same manner, viz. by the decomposition of water, which may be thus explained.

The sulphur attracts the oxygen of the water, while the hydrogen of the latter unites in its nascent state to the oxygen of the metal, and restores it to the metallic form.

Hence it follows, that the sulphur is oxygenated by the oxygen of the water, while the metal is restored to its combustible state.

It also follows, that a quantity of water equal to that consumed is formed by the hydrogen of the water, and the oxygen of the metal.

This explanation is supported by a fine experiment of Dr. Priestley, who obtained inflammable air by passing the vapour of water through sulphur heated in an earthen tube;18 and farther confirmed by the experience of some judicious makers of oil of vitriol, who always sprinkle the sulphur with a certain proportion of water, before they inflame it.

The decomposition of water in these reductions must be granted, or it must be supposed that a single takes place in preference to a double affinity; which cannot be admitted.

These experiments point out several errors in M. Lavoisier's Table of the Affinities of the Oxygenous Principle; for he has placed sulphur at a much greater distance from that principle than any of the metals treated of in this chapter except gold, and even in this instance his table is erroneous, unless it be proved that sulphur reduces metals by directly uniting with, and separating their oxygen; a supposition which implies, that the reduction is effected by a single affinity, and therefore inadmissible.

I shall close this chapter with a short extract from the Chymical Essays of Bishop Watson, as it seems to have some relation to the experiments related here.

His lordship says, that his experiments on "the Derbyshire lead ore instruct us to believe, that the lead in this kind of ore is in its metallic state; as the ore was changed into lead without the addition of any substance containing the inflammable principle."19

But the reduction of lead by sulphur and water, related in this chapter, points out an evident source of the inflammable principle; for the ore itself must contain some water, a constituent part of which is hydrogen, or the base of inflammable air; beside his lordship thinks no appearance of lead would have taken place, had there been no communication with the external air; but as air always holds water in solution, an ample source of the inflammable principle is evident.

CHAPTER IV.
REDUCTION OF METALS
BY
ALKALINE SULPHURE.

THE Sulphure I made use of, was prepared by fusing equal parts of carbonate of potash and flowers of sulphur, till the effervescence ceased.

M. Gengembre has made a very important observation on alkaline sulphure, prepared in this way, which is, that this substance has no smell, and that it exhales no gas while it continues dry, but that when it is dissolved in water, or attracts humidity from the air, it diffuses an offensive smell.

From this circumstance M. Gengembre inferred, that the disengagement of this gas depended on the decomposition of water; for he discovered both by analysis and synthesis, that this air consists of hydrogen, one of the principles of water, combined with sulphur and caloric.

There can then be no doubt, but alkaline sulphure has the power of decomposing water; and may therefore be happily employed to illustrate the mode of action of sulphur, and other combustible substances, treated of in this essay.

When diluted acids are poured on solid alkaline sulphure, the decomposition of the water is promoted and accelerated, sulphurated hydrogen gas being formed in great abundance.

I made two solutions of this alkaline sulphure, one in water, and the other in alcohol.

EXPERIMENT I.

GOLD.

A bit of silk was immersed in the solution of sulphure in alcohol, and then a solution of gold in ether was applied; a brown matter was formed in the silk, but no reduced gold could be perceived.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of sulphure in alcohol, and a solution of nitro muriate of gold in water was applied; a white metallic film was slowly formed, but no other signs of reduction were visible.

This experiment was repeated on another bit of silk with this difference, that the solutions of the gold and sulphure were both in water, and the white metallic film was instantly formed, accompanied by a considerable precipitate of a brown matter.

It is obvious then, that water accelerates, and is necessary to the appearance of this film: for when both solutions were in water, it appeared much sooner.

EXPERIMENT II.

GOLD.

A piece of silk was immersed in an aqueous solution of gold, in which the acid predominated, then a few drops of the aqueous solution of sulphure were applied; a white pellicle which looked like silver was immediately formed, and the silk got a deep brown colour.

To another piece of silk dipped in the same solution of gold, the solution of sulphure in alcohol was applied, a white metallic film appeared, but not so evident or so soon as in the preceding experiment, wherein the solution of sulphure in water was used, beside the film produced by the aqueous solution of sulphure was more permanent, and the stain, which the silk acquired, was more intense, than those produced by the solution of sulphure in alcohol.

EXPERIMENT III.

SILVER.

I immersed a piece of silk in a solution of the sulphure in alcohol, and after most of the spirit evaporated, a solution of nitrate of silver in alcohol was applied; nothing appeared on the silk but a brown stain. The nitrate of silver used in this experiment was fused, to expel as much water as possible.

Another piece of silk was dipped in the same solution of sulphure; when most of the alcohol evaporated, a solution of crystallized nitrate of silver in water was applied to the silk, and instantly the metallic lustre of the silver appeared, attended with a brown slain.

EXPERIMENT IV.

SILVER.

A piece of silk was dipped in the solution of alkaline sulphure in water, and an aqueous solution of crystallized nitrate of silver was applied; the silver was immediately reduced in greater quantity than in the preceding experiment, in which the alkaline sulphure employed was dissolved in alcohol. The stain produced in the silk was also more intense.

EXPERIMENT V.

SILVER.

A bit of silk was immersed in a solution of the sulphure in water, and then a solution of nitrate of silver in alcohol was applied, but nothing appeared on the silk, except a brown stain. The nitrate of silver used in this experiment, was fused, which deprived it of a great part of its acid. That this was the circumstance which prevented the reduction of the silver, appears from the following experiment.

A bit of silk was immersed in the same solution of silver in alcohol, then some diluted nitric acid was applied, lastly the aqueous solution of sulphure was dropped on the silk, and instantly the silver was restored to its metallic splendour. It is evident then, that acids contribute to the reduction of silver by alkaline sulphure, which they effect by promoting the decomposition of water.

In some time the reduced silver disappears for the most part, and indeed the white metallic films which were produced in the experiments on gold, totally disappeared.

EXPERIMENT VI.

PLATINA.

A bit of silk was immersed in a solution of nitro-muriate of the ore of platina in distilled water and dried, then the solution of sulphure in alcohol was dropped on the silk; nothing appeared but a brown stain.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the aqueous solution of sulphure, and a little of the solution of platina applied; in a short time, a film of reduced platina appeared.

To another bit of silk which was dipped in the solution of platina, a few drops of distilled vinegar were applied, and then the solution of sulphure in water was added; a brown stain was immediately produced, and more platina reduced than in the preceding experiment.

EXPERIMENT VII.

MERCURY.

To a bit of silk, which was immersed in a solution of oxygenated muriate of mercury in water, and dried in the air, some of the solution of sulphure in alcohol was applied, but no change, except a light yellowish brown, was produced.

After the silk was some time exposed to the air, some very faint shades of black were visible on parts of it.

To a piece of silk which was immersed in the solution of sulphure in water, some of the same solution of mercury was applied, immediately the metal was restored to its metallic lustre in a very striking manner, and it was remarkable, that the precipitate on the silk was very small.

This experiment was repeated with this difference, that the silk was first wetted with distilled vinegar, and more of the mercury was reduced than in the preceding experiment, attended with an olive precipitate, which gradually turned blackish; the quantity of precipitated matter in this was much greater than in the former experiment, but the reduced metal was not so bright.

EXPERIMENT VIII.

MERCURY.

A bit of silk which was dipped in a solution of nitrate of mercury and dried in the air, had no change produced on it by a solution of sulphure in alcohol, except a stain compounded of the slate colour, which the nitrate imparts, and the yellow of the sulphure.

To another bit of silk which was immersed in the aqueous solution of sulphure, some of the same solution of mercury was applied; the metal was immediately reduced, and a very black stain attended the reduction.

EXPERIMENT IX.

COPPER.

A piece of silk was dipped in a solution of sulphate of copper and dried in the air, a solution of the sulphure in alcohol was applied to it, but no change except a brown stain was produced.

To another bit of silk immersed in the aqueous solution of sulphure, some of the same solution of copper was applied, a white metallic film was slowly formed, attended with a brown colour.

On another bit of silk, which was dipped in the same solution of copper, and placed on a saucer, some distilled vinegar was dropped, and then a few drops of the aqueous solution of sulphure were added: immediately a white metallic film appeared in greater quantity than in the preceding experiment.

EXPERIMENT X.

LEAD.

A piece of silk was immersed in a solution of acetite of lead in distilled water, and dried in the air, then the solution of sulphure in alcohol was applied, but nothing appeared on the silk except a brown stain.

A bit of the same silk was dipped in the same solution of lead, then the solution of sulphure in water was applied; the lead was soon reduced to its metallic state; a brown stain and precipitate of the same colour attending the reduction.

The same experiment was repeated with this difference, that the silk was first wetted with distilled vinegar, and instantly the lead was reduced of greater lustre, and in greater quantity, than in the preceding experiment.

This experiment was tried on a bit of white calico dipped in distilled vinegar, and placed on the palm of my hand, and instantly the metallic lustre of the lead, which was reduced in great quantity, appeared in a very remarkable manner, attended with a brown stain.

EXPERIMENT XI.

TIN.

To a bit of silk dipped in a solution of muriate of tin in distilled water and dried in the air, the solu- tion of sulphure in alcohol was applied, nothing appeared but a brown stain.

Another bit of silk was immersed in the solution of sulphure in water, then the same solution of muriate of tin was applied, in a short time some reduced tin appeared on the silk. Vinegar promoted the reduction of this metal also in a remarkable manner.

EXPERIMENT XII.

ARSENIC.

A bit of silk was immersed in a solution of muriate of arsenic in distilled water and dried in the air, the solution of sulphure in alcohol was then applied, the silk first looked yellow, in a short time the yellow colour almost entirely disappeared, leaving behind a whitish precipitate, but no other change was produced.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the solution of sulphure in water, then sume of the same solution of arsenic was applied, a yellow precipitate was formed, and shortly after this precipitate was surrounded by a violet margin, but no other change could be observed.

I immersed another bit of the same silk in the same solution of arsenic, some distilled vinegar was then dropped on it, and lastly the aqueous solution of sulphure was applied, after some time a few minute films of reduced arsenic bright as silver were visible.

Some attention is necessary to discover the reduced arsenic, as the particles reduced are few, and minute, and sometimes none can be seen.

EXPERIMENT XIII.

BISMUTH.

To a bit of silk which was dipped in a solution of nitrate of bismuth in distilled water and dried in the air, the solution of sulphure in alcohol was applied, the silk appeared first yellow, then brown, but no farther change could be observed.

Another bit of silk was immersed in the solution of sulphure in water, some of the same solution of bismuth was then applied to it, the metal was immediately reduced, and a brown precipitate was formed. Vinegar seems neither to promote nor retard the reduction.

Two bits of white calico were dipped in the same solution of bismuth, to one of these placed on a saucer some distilled vinegar was added, then a single drop of the solution of sulphure in water was applied, and the whole of the calico except that part on which the drop fell was covered with reduced bismuth, which looked exceedingly bright; the same appearance was observed on the other bit, to which no vinegar was added.

EXPERIMENT XIV.

ANTIMONY.

To a bit of silk which was dipped in a solution of tartrite of antimony in distilled water and dried in the air, the solution of sulphure in alcohol was applied-, the silk got a yellow colour, whose margins some time after, acquired an orange hue, but no other change was perceived.

Another bit of the same silk was immersed in the aqueous solution of sulphure, the same solution of antimony was then applied, part of the metal was reduced, though in small quantity, attended with an orange precipitate.

The acids of vinegar and tartar seemed to impede the reduction, the muriatic acid also seemed to have the same effect, though not in so great a degree as the two former.

EXPERIMENT XV.

COBALT.

To a bit of silk which was dipped in a solution of nitrate of cobalt and dried in the air, the solution of sulphure in alcohol was applied; the silk soon became brown, but no farther change could be perceived.

To another bit of silk which was immersed in the solution of sulphure in water, a few drops of the same solution of cobalt were applied, the silk immediately acquired a dark colour, and in a little time some of the metal was reduced, attended with a dull blue precipitate, which changed to a blackish brown.

Muriate of cobalt was reduced in the same manner; vinegar promoted the reduction of both these preparations of cobalt.

EXPERIMENT XVI.

IRON.

To a piece of silk which was immersed in a solution of sulphate of iron largely diluted, and dried in the air, the solution of sulphure in alcohol was applied, the silk soon became black, but no other change could be perceived.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the solution of sulphure in water, some of the same solution of iron was then applied, the silk instantly assumed a black colour, but no reduced iron appearing, it was immerged in a glass of water, and transferred a bright film of reduced iron to the surface of that fluid.

Sometimes part of the film has not the metallic lustre, which is very evident in other parts of it, so that the parts completely reduced can be easily distinguished from the dull and imperfectly reduced black oxid of iron, intermixed with these bright films.

The same experiments were repeated on bits of calico with the same result, the calico from its spongy texture is better suited to produce strong films than silk is.

Vinegar did not promote the reduction of iron in these experiments.

EXPERIMENT XVII.

ZINC.

To a bit of silk which was immersed in a largely diluted solution of muriate of zinc, and dried in the air, some of the solution of sulphure in alcohol was applied, nothing appeared on the silk, but the yellow colour which the solution of sulphure imparts.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the solution of sulphure in water, and some of the same solution of zinc was applied, the yellow colour which the solution of sulphure gave the silk soon became white; but no reduced zinc could be seen. The silk was then immerged in a glass of clear water and transferred a bright film of reduced zinc to its surface.

In another experiment made with white calico, the pellicle transferred to the surface of water was brighter, and more zinc was reduced than in the preceding experiment.

Sulphate of zinc also was reduced both on silk and calico, with this difference, that black and olive precipitates attended the reduction,

EXPERIMENT XVIII.

MANGANESE.

I dipped a bit of silk in a diluted solution of nitrate of manganese, and dried it in the air, the solution of sulphure in alcohol was then applied, the silk acquired a yellow colour which soon disappeared, but no other change eculd be observed.

To another bit of silk, which was immersed in the solution of sulphure in water, a drop of the same solution of manganese was applied, instantly a pearl-white precipitate was formed, the margin of which soon acquired a bright film of reduced manganese. Under this film a violet tinge was evident.

The nitrate of manganese used in this experiment was very acid.

A solution of alkaline sulphure in water after a certain length of time loses the power of reducing the metals, in which respect it resembles an old solution of sulphate of iron.

Having procured a more neutral solution of nitrate of manganese, I immersed a bit of silk in the solution of sulphure in alcohol, when most of the spirit evaporated; a single drop of this solution of manganese was applied, instantly a bright film of reduced manganese appeared, attended with a violet tinge, and a brown precipitate. After some time the violet tinge disappears.

On another bit of silk immersed in the same solution of sulphure in alcohol, a drop of a solution of sulphate of manganese in distilled water was applied, instantly films of reduced manganese bright as silver appeared, accompanied with a faint violet tinge, and a pearl-white precipitate. These films soon disappear.

A solution of alkaline sulphure in alcohol does not by age lose its power of reducing the metals, as that in water does; I kept the former solution more than two years, and found it at the end of that time as capable of reducing the metals, as when it was made.

It is manifest from the experiments related in this chapter,—

1. That water is essential to the reduction of metals by alkaline sulphure.

2. That alcohol does not promote these reductions without the aid of water.

3. That alkaline sulphure does not reduce the metals by giving them phlogiston, nor by uniting with, and separating their oxygen, for were either of these opinions true, a solution of alkaline sulphure in alcohol should reduce them as effectually as a solution of the same in water does.

4. That acids contribute to these reductions by promoting the decomposition of water.

Now since M. Gengembre has demonstrated, that water is decomposed by alkaline sulphure, who can doubt that it is decomposed in these reductions?

The manner in which metals are reduced by this substance, seems to be the following.

An hydrure of sulphur, that is, a combination of hydrogen and sulphur is formed: this hydrure of sulphur attracts the oxygen of the water, while the hydrogen of the latter unites in its nascent state, with the oxygen of the metal, and reduces it.

The experiments in this chapter leave us no room to doubt of the decomposition of water in metallic reductions by alkaline sulphure, and serve to illustrate and confirm the manner in which sulphur, phosphorus, and other combustible bodies, effect the reduction of metals.

CHAPTER V.
REDUCTION OF METALS
BY
SULPHURATED HYDROGEN GAS.

HAVING treated of the effects of hydrogen gas and sulphur separately, I shall next treat of their effects, when combined in the form of sulphurated hydrogen gas.

I obtained this elastic fluid by pouring water, acidulated with sulphuric acid on alkaline sulphure, prepared in the manner mentioned in the preceding chapter; but had it been prepared with a caustic alkali, it is probable the gas would be more powerful. The sulphure of the shops is generally unfit for these experiments.

It is necessary in experiments with sulphurated hydrogen gas, hydrogen gas, &c. to have some mode of conveying them into a chimney, as they are offensive and unwholesome.

EXPERIMENT I.

GOLD.

A piece of silk, which was immersed in a solution of nitro-muriate of gold in water, and dried in the air, was exposed to sulphurated hydrogen gas, the silk got a slight tinge of brown, but no other change occurred; it was then wetted with alcohol, and after some time, the brown became more intense, and white films appeared on some parts of the silk, owing to moisture collected from the gas, which is always replete with water.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of gold and exposed, while wet, to the gas, the yellow colour, which the solution of gold gave the silk, was immediately changed to a brown, and a white metallic pellicle appeared, and covered the whole surface of the silk opposed to the gas; but no purple or other colours, that usually attend the reduction of this metal by other agents, could be perceived. This pellicle did not entirely disappear as the silk became dry; though it lost most of its lustre and looked more like silver, or some other white metal imperfectly reduced, than gold.

This elastic fluid, and alkaline sulphure, have an effect on the reduction of gold, very different from that of the vapour of sulphur obtained from a burning match, which further appears from the following experiment, made with sulphurated hydrogen gas, that happened to be mixed with some sulphurous acid gas.

EXPERIMENT II.

GOLD.

A piece of silk, which was dipped in a solution of gold in ether and dried in the air, was exposed to a current of sulphurated hydrogen gas, containing some sulphurous acid gas; but no signs of reduction could be perceived: the silk was then wetted with alcohol, still no visible change was produced, except a brown stain where the alcohol most abounded; this stain, after some minutes exposure to atmospheric air, was covered with a white metallic film, which soon disappeared; after some minutes the silk was wetted with water and exposed again to the gas, a white metallic film immediately appeared, and the brown stain began to change slowly to a purple; the silk was soon covered with various colours, as blue, red, and orange, and some spots of reduced gold of its own proper colour appeared; after some time the white film and all the colours, except the purple, disappeared, some specks of the perfectly reduced gold were permanent.

Another bit of silk, which was immersed in an aqueous solution of gold and exposed to the same mixed gas, exhibited nearly the same appearances.

EXPERIMENT III.

GOLD.

Having found that sulphurated hydrogen gas had a powerful effect in reducing other metals, I was desirous of trying its effects on a larger scale, thinking it might be attended with more success; I therefore immersed a quarter of a yard of silk in an aqueous solution of gold and exposed it while wet, to this gas in close vessels; the silk was soon covered with a white metallic pellicle, which disappeared in a short time: the experiment was continued about twelve hours, and on withdrawing the silk from the gas, I could not perceive the smallest vestige of reduced metal, or purple, or other colours, that constantly attend the reduction of gold.

The silk had a dull brown hue verging on a slate colour.

EXPERIMENT IV.

SILVER.

A piece of silk, which was immersed in a solution of nitrate of silver in water, and dried in the air, was exposed to a current of sulphurated hydrogen gas, but no change could be perceived for some time; at length, when the silk collected moisture from the gas, some particles of reduced silver were visible, accompanied by a brown stain.

Another piece of silk was dipped in the same solution of nitrate of silver, and exposed while wet, to the gas; the silver was instantly reduced all over the side of the silk opposed to the current, a great variety of beautiful colours, as red, orange, yellow, green, and blue, attended the reduction; most of these disappeared, but part of the silver remained permanently reduced.

I found that, if the silk be immersed in a solution of silver in alcohol and dried, and then moistened with water, and exposed while wet to the gas, none of these colours appear.

This experiment was repeated on a quarter of a yard of silk in close vessels, and immediately both sides of the silk were covered with reduced silver, attended with the same beautiful colours; the silk was left exposed to the gas seven or eight hours, and being then examined, no reduced silver could be seen; nothing remained but a strange medley of colours, chiefly blue, green, purple, and orange, unequally mixed, some prevailing more than others in certain parts of the silk; however, the die is by no means disagreeable.

EXPERIMENT V.

SILVER.

A piece of silk, which was immersed in a solution of fused nitrate of silver in alcohol, and dried in the air, was exposed to a current of the gas; but no change could be perceived for some time: it was then wetted with alcohol, still no alteration could be observed, till the silk attracted moisture from the gas, when small particles of reduced silver began to appear, attended with a brown stain.

If the silk immersed in the solution of silver in alcohol, and exposed while wet to the gas, be kept constantly wet with alcohol, these appearances take place sooner.

A piece of silk, which was dipped in a solution of muriate of silver in ammonia, and exposed, while wet, to the gas, had in a short time its surface covered with reduced silver; but another piece of silk dipped in the same solution of silver and dried, underwent no such change.

EXPERIMENT VI.

PLATINA.

A bit of silk, which was dipped in a solution of nitro-muriate of the ore of platina in distilled water and dried in the air, was exposed to a current of sulphurated hydrogen gas, but underwent no perceptible change.

Another bit of silk was immersed in the same solution of platina and exposed while wet, to the gas; the whole surface of the silk, opposed to the current, was instantly covered with reduced platina, which soon lost its lustre; nothing remaining but a brown colour, with some faint vestiges of the reduced metal.

This experiment was repeated on a bit of linen with the same result.

EXPERIMENT VII.

MERCURY.

A bit of silk, which was dipped in a solution of oxygenated muriate of mercury in distilled water, and dried in the air, was exposed to a current of the gas; the only visible change produced was a slight shade of yellow on part of the silk.

Another bit of silk was immersed in the same solution of mercury and exposed, while wet, to the gas; the mercury was immediately reduced, but soon lost its lustre; the gas reacting changed most of it to a substance of a dull white colour.

The same experiments were made with nitrate of mercury, with the same result.

EXPERIMENT VIII.

COPPER.

A bit of silk was immersed in a solution of sulphate of copper in distilled water, and suspended in the air to dry; it was then exposed to a current of the gas, the silk assumed a brown colour; but no other change appeared.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of copper, and exposed while wet to the gas, a white metallic film attended with a brown stain, immediately appeared, some parts had a yellow film approaching to the colour of copper; these films all disappeared leaving behind a brown stain; the parts which were covered with the yellow film resembling copper, exhibited after some time, a dull bluish disagreeable matter.

EXPERIMENT IX.

LEAD.

Having dipped a piece of silk in a solution of acetite of lead in distilled water and dried it in the air, I exposed it to a stream of the gas; the silk became a little brown, but no other change could be observed.

Another bit of silk was immersed in the same solution of lead, and exposed while wet to the gas; no sooner did it touch the silk, than a brown tinge diffused itself like a passing shadow over the whole surface of the silk, accompanied with a bright coat of reduced lead, whieh resembled silver.

The brown tinge, which the silk acquires, resembles what happens when white paper is slightly singed by holding it near a burning body.

This experiment was repeated on a quarter of a yard of silk in close vessels, and the silk was immediately covered with a coat of reduced lead, which had the brilliance of silver, and was attended with a brown tinge; the experiment was continued several hours, after which the silk was examined, and found to have lost all the argentine lustre, which was succeeded by a sparkling gray die; a sulphure of lead, or galena, being formed in the fibres of the silk. The same experiment was repeated on two other pieces of silk with the same result.

This elastic fluid is so powerful a reducer of the metals, that if chambers painted with white lead, have any considerable degree of moisture, and are exposed to its influence, the lead on the surface of the walls is reduced, and that chiefly where the humidity is most abundant; this effect I observed, was produced, even at the distance of three chambers from the place where the gas was formed; and the lead was reduced most evidently behind the window shutters where the moisture of the wall was most considerable.

It is a common experiment with chymists, in order to shew the effects of this gas, to draw characters with a solution of sugar of lead on paper, which they place over a glass of water containing some alkaline sulphure; in some time the characters drawn on the paper acquire a brown, or black colour, and become visible; which amuses the spectators.

But it is surprising, that the metal has never been reduced in this experiment even by chance; and not less so, why lead should be singled out for this trial of skill, in preference to other metals, which are equally affected by this gas.

EXPERIMENT X.

TIN.

A piece of silk was dipped in a solution of muriate of tin in distilled water and dried in the air; the silk on exposure to a current of the gas, scarce underwent any change, except a few brown specks dispersed over its surface.

Another bit of silk was immersed in the same solution of tin, and exposed while wet to the gas, which no sooner touched the silk, than the surface opposed to the current was covered with reduced tin of great brightness; in some time various colours, as blue, orange, and a faint purple, appeared, and became more evident, as the reduction proceeded.

The gas does not re-act on this metal so much as on mercury, and some other metals, part of the reduced tin remained permanent, but most of it disappeared, and left behind a disagreeable brown stain.

EXPERIMENT XI.

ARSENIC.

A bit of silk was immersed in a solution of muriate of arsenic in distilled water and dried in the air, it was then exposed to a stream of sulphurated hydrogen gas, but no change could be observed, except a faint tinge of citron yellow, which appeared on some parts of the silk.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of arsenic and exposed while wet to the gas, the arsenic was instantly reduced all over the surface, opposed to the gas, attended with a citron yellow colour.

The gas soon re-acted on the reduced arsenic; and nothing remained but the yellow stain.

EXPERIMENT XII.

BISMUTH.

I dissolved some bismuth in nitric acid, and evaporated the solution to dryness, the salt was then dis- solved in distilled water, and the solution deposited a copious white precipitate, but retained a quantity of the metal sufficient for these experiments.

In this solution of bismuth a piece of silk was immersed, and dried in the air, it was then exposed to a stream of the gas, and the only visible effect produced was a very faint tinge of brown.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of bismuth, and exposed wet to the gas, the silk was instantly covered with a bright pellicle of reduced bismuth, which soon lost most of its metallic lustre, being changed by the reaction of the gas to a sulphure.

Mr. Kirwan in his experiments on hepatic air, found that nitrous solution of bismuth, by mixture with a solution of hepatic air in water, changes to a reddish brown, and even assumes a metallic appearance.

He also found that nitrates of silver, lead, and acetite of lead, were precipitated black.

EXPERIMENT XIII.

ANTIMONY.

A piece of silk, which was immersed in a solution of tartrite of antimony in distilled water and dried in the air, was exposed to a stream of the gas, but suffered no visible change, except that a few specks of yellow and orange appeared.

A bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of antimony, and exposed while wet, to the gas, the antimony was immediately reduced to its metallic form, attended with a deep orange colour; in some time, most of the metallic lustre disappeared, a few specks only remaining permanent.

EXPERIMENT XIV.

IRON.

A piece of silk was immersed in a diluted solution of sulphate of iron in distilled water and dried; it was then exposed to a current of the gas, but underwent no visible change.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of iron and exposed while wet, to the gas; the silk soon began to acquire a dark colour, which gradually increased, and at length became black, attended with an obscure metallic film. The silk was immersed in water, and deposited a bright metallic film on the surface of that fluid.

EXPERIMENT XV.

ZINC.

A bit of silk which was immersed in a diluted solution of sulphate of zinc in distilled water and dried in the air, was exposed to a current of the gas, but underwent no visible change.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of zinc and exposed while wet, to the gas, but no change in the colour of the silk, or sign of reduction could be perceived; the silk was then immerged in a glass of clear water, and transferred to its surface a bright metallic film of the colour of zinc.

When a languid stream of gas was employed in these experiments the films transferred to water were scarce visible.

EXPERIMENT XVI.

ZINC.

A piece of silk, which was immersed in a largely diluted solution of muriate of zinc and dried in the air, was exposed to a brisk current of sulphurated hydrogen gas, but underwent no visible alteration.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of zinc, and exposed while wet, to the same brisk current of gas; instantly the surface of the silk opposed to the gas, was covered with a bright coat of reduced zinc, attended with faint orange and purple colours.

Though the reduced zinc was quite evident, yet I had the curiosity to examine its appearance on the surface of water; I therefore immersed the silk in a glass of that fluid, and a bright metallic pellicle, which retained the texture of the silk, as wax retains the impression of a seal, was transferred to its surface.

Another bit of silk, dipped in the same solution of zinc, and exposed for a longer time to the gas, lost its metallic lustre, the zinc being changed to a sulphure by the re-action of the gas.

These experiments, on sulphate and muriate of zinc, show that the acid in which the metal is dissolved, influences the reduction in a remarkable manner.

It is evident from the experiments related in this chapter,

1. That water is essential to the reduction of metals by sulphurated hydrogen gas.

2. That alcohol does not promote these reductions without the aid of water.

3. That sulphurated hydrogen gas does not reduce the metals by giving them phlogiston, nor by uniting with and separating their oxygen; for, were either of these opinions well founded, metallic solutions in alcohol should be as effectually reduced by this gas, as metallic solutions in water are.

When we consider that alkaline sulphure reduces the metals by decomposing water, we have every reason to conclude that sulphurated hydrogen gas reduces ihem in the same manner, since the same cir- cumstances are necessary to both; the hydrure of sulphur, which constitutes the base of this gas attracts the oxygen of the water, while the hydrogen of the latter unites in its nascent state, with the oxygen of the metal, and reduces it.

Hence it follows, that the hydrure of sulphur is oxygenated by the oxygen of the water, while the metal is restored to its combustible state.

CHAPTER VI.
REDUCTION OF METALS
BY
PHOSPHORATED HYDROGEN GAS.

THE effects of hydrogen gas and phosphorus on the reduction of metals in the fibres of silk have been treated of separately in the two first chapters; in this, I shall briefly treat of their effects, when combined in the form of phosphorated hydrogen gas, which from its high degree of inflammability seemed well adapted to this purpose.

The spontaneous inflammation of this kind of air was known to M. Gengembre in 1783, and his experiments were published in Rosier's journal for October 1785.

Mr. Kirwan also, without any knowledge of M. Gengembre's experiments, discovered the same air, which he calls phosphoric air; and published his experiments in the 76th volume of the Philosophical Transactions for 1786.

This elastic fluid may be obtained by digesting a solution of potash in water with about half its weight of phosphorus in a heat sufficient to melt the latter, and may be received in glass vessels over mercury.

But finding it inconvenient to introduce pieces of silk prepared for these experiments over mercury in close vessels, I exposed them to the gas, as it issued from the neck of the phial in which it was prepared.

Part of this elastic fluid is spontaneously inflammable, but the other has not that property, which M. Gengembre imputes to the presence of carbonic acid; for the sake of brevity, I shall designate the latter by the term gas, or phosphorated hydrogen gas; and the former by the epithets spontaneously inflammable, or detonating gas, which I found does not burn or scorch silk wetted with metallic solutions.

EXPERIMENT I.

GOLD.

A piece of silk, which was immersed in a solution of nitro-muriate of gold in distilled water, and suspended in the air twelve hours to dry, was divided into three parts.

One of these was exposed to a stream of phosphorated hydrogen gas: the silk became brown, and its margins, which happened to touch the sides of the phial, acquired a violet tinge: but no reduction took place.

Another of these parts was wetted with alcohol, and exposed to the gas; but no signs of reduction could be perceived.

The remaining part was wetted with water, and was no sooner exposed to the gas, than the reduction commenced over the whole silk, which was soon covered with a bright coat of reduced gold.

EXPERIMENT II.

SILVER.

A piece of silk was dipped in a solution of fused nitrate of silver in alcohol, and dried in the air: it was then divided into three parts.

One of these, in order to dissipate moisture more effectually, was dried still better by a gentle heat, and exposed to the gas; the silk acquired a brownish dark colour: but no other alteration could be perceived.

Another of these parts, which was also better dried by a gentle heat, was wetted with alcohol, and exposed to the gas: the silk acquired a dark brown colour; but no other change could be observed.

The remaining part was wetted with water, and exposed to the gas: the reduction commenced immediately, and in a short time the silk was covered with reduced silver.

EXPERIMENT III.

PLATINA.

A piece of silk was immersed in a solution of nitro-muriate of the ore of platina in distilled water, and dried in the air; it was then divided into three parts.

One of these parts was exposed to the gas, but suffered no visible change.

Another of them was wetted with alcohol, and exposed to the gas; but underwent no perceptible change.

The remaining part was wetted with water, and exposed to the gas: in about three or four minutes, a bright metallic film, of great lustre, appeared on the side of the silk, opposed to the gas.

Another bit of silk, which was dipped in the same solution of platina, and exposed, while wet, to the spontaneously inflammable gas, was immediately covered with reduced platina, which being transferred to the surface of water, looked bright as silver, and retained the impression of the silk.

EXPERIMENT IV.

MERCURY.

A bit of silk, which was immersed in a solution of nitrate of mercury in distilled water, and dried in the air, was exposed to the gas; but underwent no visible change.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of mercury, and dried: it was then wetted with alcohol, and exposed to the gas, but no sign of reduction appeared.

Another bit of silk was immersed in the same solution of mercury, and exposed to the gas; the metal was instantly reduced all over the silk; a great variety of beautiful colours attending.

A piece of silk was dipped in a solution of oxygenated muriate of mercury in distilled water, and dried in the air: it was then divided into two parts.

One of these was exposed to the gas: no change appearing, it was wetted with alcohol, and exposed again to the gas; but still no alteration could be perceived.

The remaining part was wetted with water, and was no sooner exposed to the gas, than the mercury was reduced over the whole silk. No colours attended the reduction.

Mr. Kirwan introduced some precipitate per se to a small portion of phosphoric air: the precipitate soon grew black, and a white smoke appeared; in two days the precipitate remained solid, yet acquired a pale white colour like that of steel: the air lost its spontaneous inflammability.20

EXPERIMENT V.

COPPER.

A piece of silk, which was immersed in a solution of sulphate of copper in distilled water and dried in the air, was divided into two parts.

One of these was exposed to the gas, but no visible change occurred.

The remaining part was wetted with water and exposed to the gas, in a few minutes a brownish matter appeared in the silk, but nothing metallic could be seen; the silk was then dipped in a glass of clear water, and transferred a small white metallic pellicle to its surface.

In another experiment made with the spontaneously inflammable gas, a white metallic pellicle was immediately formed, attended with a brown stain, this pellicle resembled silver or a white metal; but the gas soon re-acted on it, and formed a disagreeable brown matter in the fibres of the silk.

EXPERIMENT VI.

LEAD.

A bit of silk, which was dipped in a solution of acetite of lead in distilled water and dried in the air, was exposed to the gas, but suffered no visible change.

Another bit of silk was immersed in the same solution of lead, and exposed while wet to the gas, but nothing metallic could be seen; the silk, however, on immersion in water, transferred a few minute bright films to the surface of that fluid.

In another experiment made with the detonating gas, the reduced films were more evident.

EXPERIMENT VII.

TIN.

A bit of silk, which was dipped in a solution of muriate of tin in distilled water and dried in the air, was exposed to the action of the gas without suffering any visible alteration.

Another piece of silk was immersed in the same solution of tin and exposed while wet to the gas, but no signs of reduction could be perceived; the silk was then immersed in water and transferred a delicate metallic film to its surface.

EXPERIMENT VIII.

ARSENIC.

A bit of silk, which was immersed in a solution of muriate of arsenic in distilled water and dried in the air, was exposed to the gas, but no change could be perceived.

Another bit of silk, immersed in the same solution of arsenic and exposed while wet to the gas, acquired in a few minutes a brown stain, but nothing metallic could be seen on the silk; which, however, on being dipped in water, transferred a very minute film of reduced arsenic to its surface.

In another experiment made with the detonating gas, the films of reduced arsenic were much more evident, of greater brilliance and attended with a brown stain produced in the fibres of the silk.

EXPERIMENT IX.

BISMUTH.

A piece of silk, which was dipped in a solution of nitrate of bismuth in distilled water and dried in the air, was exposed to the gas but no alteration could be observed.

Another bit of silk was immersed in the same solution of bismuth, and exposed while wet to the gas; the silk in two or three minutes got a brown stain, which gradually became more intense, and a very delicate metallic film appeared; the silk was then immerged in water, and transferred a bright film of reduced bismuth to the surface of that fluid; the film retained the impression of the silk.

EXPERIMENT X.

ANTIMONY.

A bit of silk immersed in a solution of tartrite of antimony in distilled water and dried in the air was exposed to the gas, but suffered no apparent change.

Another piece of silk was dipped in the same solution of antimony, and exposed while wet to the gas, but no signs of reduction appeared; the silk was then immerged in water, to the surface of which it transferred one small spangle.

This experiment was repeated with the detonating gas, which with difficulty produced some sparkling films; the silk was immersed in water and transferred the films to its surface.

A white matter was visible in the fibres of the silk.

EXPERIMENT XI.

COBALT.

A piece of silk immersed in a solution of muriate of cobalt and dried in the air, was exposed to the gas, but suffered no visible alteration.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of cobalt, and exposed while wet to the gas, but no sign of reduction appeared, nor did the silk transfer a film to water.

Another bit of silk was immersed in a solution of nitrate of cobalt, and exposed while wet to the detonating gas, no signs of reduction were visible for some time; but at length a few small spangles of the metal appeared on the silk, and were very brilliant, and when transferred to water were still more so; a white matter could be seen in the fibres of the silk.

EXPERIMENT XII.

IRON.

A bit of silk was immersed in a largely diluted solution of sulphate of iron in distilled water, and dried, it was then exposed to the action of the gas; but no alteration could be perceived.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the same solution of iron and exposed while wet to the gas, in a few minutes some parts of the silk acquired a light brown colour; but no reduced iron could be seen on the silk, which however, transferred a very minute and delicate film to water.

This experiment was repeated with a strong detonating gas, and a very brilliant metallic film about four lines in diameter was reduced on the silk, accompanied with a brown stain, but nothing like the black oxid of iron appeared.

EXPERIMENT XIII.

ZINC.

A bit of silk, which was immersed in a largely diluted solution of muriate of zinc was exposed dry to the gas, but underwent no visible alteration.

Another piece of silk was dipped in the same solution of zinc and exposed wet to the gas; no signs of reduction appearing, the silk was immerged in water, and left a very minute metallic film on its surface, which could with difficulty be seen.

The experiment was repeated with the detonating gas, and a very bright metallic film of zinc, four or five lines in diameter, was reduced on the silk.

This experiment succeeded also with a largely diluted solution of sulphate of zinc.

The silk, viewed by transmitted light, exhibited a brown stain beneath these films of iron and zinc.

The experiments detailed in this chapter shew,

1. That water is essential to the reduction of metals by phosphorated hydrogen gas.

2. That alcohol does not promote these reductions without the aid of water.

3. That this elastic fluid does not reduce metals by giving them phlogiston, nor by combining with, and separating their oxygen; for, were either of these suppositions true, it should reduce them as well with alcohol as with water.

After explaining the manner, in which sulphurated hydrogen gas reduces the metals, the mode of agency of phosphorated hydrogen gas is sufficiently obvious.

The gas attracts the oxygen of the water, while the hydrogen of the latter unites in its nascent state with the oxygen of the metal and reduces it.

Hence it follows that the hydrure of phosphorus, which constitutes the base of this gas, is oxygenated by the oxygen of the water, while the metal is, at the same time, restored to its combustible state.

By hydrure of phosphorus, is meant a combination of hydrogen and phosphorus, containing less caloric than is necessary to the gaseous state.

CHAPTER VII.
REDUCTION OF METALS
BY
CHARCOAL.

FINDING several combustible bodies, as hydrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, and combinations of these, capable of reducing the metals in the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere; I was desirous of knowing if charcoal also possessed that power.

Charcoal may be applied with this view in several forms. M. Rouelle has observed that caustic fixed alkali dissolves a considerable quantity of this substance.

Charcoal also exists in a very attenuated state in ether, alcohol, gum, &c.

I have examined some of its effects on the reduction of metals, in these different forms, in which it probably exists combined with hydrogen, and also some of its effects in the solid form.

EXPERIMENT I.

GOLD.

A small bit of well burned charcoal was suspended by a thread in a phial containing a diluted solution of nitro-muriate of gold in distilled water; some air bubbles soon appeared on the charcoal; and in about two hours reduced gold was. evident on its lower surface, and increased gradually, till the charcoal was nearly coated with gold of its proper colour.

This experiment was repeated with a richer solution of gold; the reduction did not commence near so soon, nor was the quantity reduced so great, or brilliant, as in the preceding experiment.

EXPERIMENT II.

GOLD.

A small bit of charcoal was suspended in a solution of gold in ether: an effervescence immediately commenced, and continued for a considerable time: but the solution suffered no change of colour, nor was there a particle of the gold reduced.

I should not be surprised if the gold were reduced in this experiment, as charcoal contains a large quantity of water, which it powerfully attracts from the surrounding air: however not a vestige of reduced gold could be perceived.

Bits of charcoal were suspended in the same manner in most of the metallic solutions treated of in this essay: no change was perceived on those immersed in solutions of arsenic, manganese, and fused nitrate of silver in water: but a bit immersed in a solution of the same nitrate in alcohol, had parts of it covered with bright sparkling particles, which seemed to vegetate from the charcoal, and were evidently reduced silver: for they were not soluble in water, on the surface of which the bit of charcoal deposited some small spangles of great lustre. The bits immersed in solutions of sulphate of iron and zinc exhibited some very faint signs of reduction.

But these experiments were not repeated, nor sufficiently varied, to enable us to form a just opinion of the power of charcoal in reducing metals in this way.

A small quantity of charcoal, reduced to fine powder, was digested several days in a strong solution of caustic potash in alcohol; the phial was frequently shaken to promote the solution.

Some of the clear solution, which was of a reddish colour, was poured into a phial for use.

EXPERIMENT III.

GOLD.

A few drops of this solution of charcoal, or carbon, were applied to a bit of silk; after the alcohol evaporated, a solution of gold in ether was dropped on, and immediately produced a brown, which, in about half an hour, was changed to a purple hue, owing to water attracted from the air, but no other sign of reduction appeared.

Another bit of silk was immersed in the solution of carbon, and when the alcohol evaporated, a few drops of an aqueous solution of gold were applied; a brown stain was instantly formed; the silk was kept wet with water; the stain gradually assumed a purple tinge, and in about five minutes, some reduced gold of its proper splendour and colour appeared: and in some time after every part of the silk, to which the solutions of carbon and gold were applied, was coated with reduced gold, which remained permanent. During the experiment, it is necessary to keep the silk constantly wet with water.

If the solution of gold be applied before the alcohol evaporates, a black precipitate is formed, along with the brown stain. In an experiment made in this manner, a metallic film, whitish and obscure, appeared in the beginning; but soon vanished: and in some time after, the gold was reduced of its proper colour; and a speck of ruby red appeared on the margin.

The silk viewed by transmitted light presented various colours, as purple, blue, and some green.

EXPERIMENT IV.

SILVER.

A few drops of the solution of carbon were applied to a bit of silk: when the alcohol evaporated, a solution of fused nitrate of silver in alcohol was applied: a light brown stain was immediately produced in the silk; but no reduced silver could be seen.

The solution of carbon was applied to another bit of silk, and when the alcohol evaporated, an aqueous solution of fused nitrate of silver was dropped on: a brown stain was instantly formed, and in about ten minutes, minute films of reduced silver were visible.

The silk was kept wet with water during the experiment; and the brown stain was gradually changed to black. In some little time the metallic films disappeared.

If the solution of silver be applied to the silk, before the alcohol evaporates, black and brown precipitates are immediately formed; and commonly no reduced silver can be seen; but sometimes very minute films appear.

EXPERIMENT V.

PLATINA.

To a bit of silk, which was immersed in a solution of nitro muriate of platina in distilled water, and dried in the air, a few drops of the solution of car- bon were applied; but no visible change was produced.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the solution of carbon, and when the alcohol evaporated, a few drops of the solution of platina were applied: a yellow precipitate was immediately formed, and in about ten minutes delicate films of reduced platina were visible: these metallic films soon vanished; and nothing but a yellow stain and the precipitate remained.

A bit of calico, on which this experiment was repeated, transferred a bright film of reduced platina to the surface of water.

During these experiments, the silk and calico were kept wet with water.

EXPERIMENT VI.

MERCURY.

On a bit of silk, which was immersed in a solution of oxygenated muriate of mercury in distilled water and dried in the air, a little of the solution of carbon was dropped, but the silk underwent no visible change.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the solution of carbon, and when the alcohol evaporated, a little of the same solution of mercury was applied, a yellow precipitate was immediately formed, and soon after small films of reduced mercury appeared on the margin of the stain.

This experiment was repeated with a solution of nitrate of mercury, and the reduction of the metal was very evident on the margin of the stain, which was black; the precipitate on the bit of silk was of the colour of sulphur.

EXPERIMENT VII.

COPPER.

To a bit of calico, which was immersed in a solution of acetite of copper in distilled water and dried in the air, a few drops of the solution of carbon were applied, but no visible change was produced.

On another bit of calico which was dipped in the same solution of copper, some of the solution of carbon was dropped, the calico acquired a slight tinge of brown; it was kept wet with water, and in about twenty minutes several white metallic films were evident.

A bit of silk on which this experiment was made, acquired a beautiful red colour, similar to the ruby red with which copper tinges glass, and depending on the same cause, viz. the quantity of oxygen combined with the metal.

EXPERIMENT VIII.

LEAD.

A bit of white calico was immersed in a solution of acetite of lead in distilled water and dried in the air, then a few drops of the solution of carbon were applied, but no visible alteration took place.

On another bit of the same calico, which was dipped in the solution of carbon, a little of the same solution of lead was dropped, and in a few seconds films of reduced lead bright as silver appeared, the calico was then immergcd in water, and transferred a continuous pellicle of reduced lead to its surface.

This experiment was often repeated, both on silk and calico; sometimes the lead is reduced in an instant, but at other times five or six seconds elapse before any reduced lead becomes visible.

I also found that a solution of potash in alcohol reduces lead; but not so soon, or effectually, or in such quantity as the former solution does, but it is evident, that these solutions differ only in the quantity of carbon which they contain.

EXPERIMENT IX.

TIN.

To a bit of calico, which was immersed in a solution of muriate of tin in distilled water, and dried in the air, some of the solution of carbon was applied; but no signs of reduction appeared, nor was the colour of the calico much altered.

On another bit of calico which was dipped in the solution of carbon, some of the same solution of tin was dropped, a white precipitate was instantly formed, attended with bright films of reduced tin; the calico was immerged in water, and left a bright metallic film on the surface of that fluid.

The same experiment succeeds on silk.

EXPERIMENT X.

BISMUTH.

A piece of silk which was immersed in a solution of nitrate of bismuth in distilled water and dried in the air, suffered no visible alteration on applying the solution of carbon.

To a bit of calico which was dipped in the solution of carbon, a few drops of the same solution of bismuth were applied, and immediately films of reduced bismuth were evident. The calico was immerged in water, and transferred a bright metallic film to its surface.

This experiment succeeded also on silk.

EXPERIMENT XI.

ARSENIC.

A bit of silk was immersed in a solution of muriate of arsenic in distilled water and dried in the air, then a little of the solution of carbon was dropped on the silk, but no visible alteration took place.

Another bit of silk was dipped in the solution of carbon, and when the alcohol evaporated, some drops of the same solution of arsenic were applied; and in a short time a few minute metallic films were visible on the silk, which when transferred to water, were still more so.

Tartrite of antimony treated in the same manner, transferred a very delicate film, scarcely visible, to the surface of water.

EXPERIMENT XII.

IRON.

A bit of calico which was dipped in a largely diluted solution of sulphate of iron, and dried in the air, suffered no perceptible change on applying the solution of carbon, except a slight tinge of brown.

Another bit of calico was immersed in the same solution of iron, and placed on a bit of deal board, a few drops of the solution of carbon were then applied, the calico was kept constantly wet with water, and in about fifteen minutes films of reduced iron were visible, the calico was immersed in water and left a bright metallic film on its surface.

EXPERIMENT XIII.

ZINC.

To a bit of silk which was dipped in a largely diluted solution of muriate of zinc, and dried in the air, a few drops of the solution of carbon were ap- plied, but scarce any alteration of colour, or other visible change occurred.

A piece of calico was immersed in the same solution of zinc, and placed on a bit of thin deal board, a few drops of the solution of carbon were then applied, the calico was kept constantly wet with water, and in about fifteen minutes films of reduced zinc were evident; the calico was immerged in water and transferred a very bright metallic film of the colour of zinc to its surface.

I also reduced muriate of cobalt in this manned

EXPERIMENT XIV.

MANGANESE.

To a bit of silk which was dipped in a diluted solution of nitrate of manganese, and dried in the air, some drops of the solution of carbon were applied, but nothing appeared except a brown stain.

Another bit of silk was immersed in the solution of carbon, when the alcohol evaporated, a few drops of the same solution of manganese were applied; a brown stain was soon produced, the silk was kept wet with water, and in about twenty minutes films of re- duced manganese of a bluish white colour were evident on the silk.

This experiment did not succeed with a strong solution of nitrate of manganese.

The same experiment succeeds also on linen and calico, both with nitrate and sulphate of manganese, the reduction is attended with violet and purple colours, such as this metal imparts to glass and other substances, in which it exists combined with different proportions of oxygen; this difference is the cause of the different colours which solutions of manganese assume.

The bright films of reduced manganese soon disappear, the cause of which has been explained in the first chapter of this essay; the explanation there offered is confirmed by the following facts.

"Regulus of manganese," says Mr. Bergman, "when well fused, generally persists in a dry place, but sometimes undergoes spontaneous calcination, and falls down in a brownish black powder.

"Moisture, but particularly the access of aerial acid assists this operation. A small piece put into a dry bottle well corked, remained perfect for the space of six months, but afterwards exposed to the open air of a chamber for two days, contracted a brownness on its surface, together with so much friability as to crumble between the fingers. The internal parts however, retained an obscure metallic splendour, which disappeared in a few hours."21

I shall now relate a few experiments made with ether, alcohol, and gum.

EXPERIMENT XV.

GOLD.

I evaporated a solution of gold in nitro-muriatic acid to dryness, and dissolved the salt in pure alcohol, the solution was poured into a phial carefully dried in hot sand, and rinced with pure alcohol, the solution filled about three-fourths of the phial, which was carefully corked, and though it was nine months exposed to the gray light, no films of reduced gold appeared.

Part of the same solution was poured into a phial, and diluted with water, films of reduced gold soon appeared.

EXPERIMENT XVI.

GOLD.

A phial half filled with a solution of gold in sulphuric ether was exposed nine months to the gray light; but no films of reduced gold were produced.

On a bit of silk, which was dipped in part of the same solution of gold, and exposed to the gray light, and kept wet with water, reduced gold appeared in the space of a few hours.

EXPERIMENT XVII.

GOLD.

I mixed an aqueous solution of gold with a solution of gum arabic in distilled water, in such proportion, as to prevent the solution from spreading in the silk.

With this solution I drew several stripes on a piece of silk, and exposed it to the gray light of a chamber; in some time the gold was reduced attended with blue and purple colours.

Similar stripes were drawn on another piece of silk, which, after the stripes became sufficiently dry, was placed over the vapour of hot water; and in about fifteen minutes the gold was reduced in a beautiful manner.

This solution was applied to another bit of silk, which after it became sufficiently dry, was placed between the leaves of a blank book, to exclude the action of light: the gold, after some time, was reduced.

I found that small stripes and spots, made with this solution, were reduced by breathing on them for some time.

Sugar also, mixed with the solution of gold, promotes the reduction; but not so well as gum.

A bit of silk was dipped in a solution of nitrate of silver in distilled water, and exposed, while wet, to the smoke of a common fire; in a short time reduced silver appeared.

The following inferences are deducible from the experiments related in this chapter.

1. Charcoal is capable of reducing the metals in the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere.

2. Water is essential to the reduction of metals by charcoal: for these experiments prove, that the reduction cannot be effected without water.

3. Charcoal does not reduce the metals by giving them phlogiston; nor by uniting with and separating their oxygen; for were either of these opinions true, metallic solutions in ether and alcohol, should be as effectually reduced by charcoal, as metallic solutions in water are.

4. Ether and alcohol do not promote the reduction of metals without the aid of water; but when this is present in sufficient quantity, they effect the reduction, in the same manner, that charcoal and other combustible bodies do.

It is evident then that charcoal reduces the metals by decomposing water; which seems to be effected in the following manner.

The carbon of the charcoal attracts the oxygen of the water, while the hydrogen of the latter unites in its nascent state, with the oxygen of the metal, and reduces it.

Hence it follows that the carbon is oxygenated by the oxygen of the water, and forms carbonic acid, while the metal is restored to its combustible state.

This explanation is supported by the following facts: M Gengembre has observed, that if charcoal be immersed in water, and kept at a temperature of thirty degrees of the thermometer of M. De Reaumur, the water is gradually decomposed, and inflammable gas is formed.22

That charcoal effects the reduction of metals, in high degrees of heat also, by decomposing water, is evident from the following observations.

The great force with which charcoal attracts water is a fact sufficiently established; Dr. Priestley is so convinced of this, that he expresses himself in the following strong terms. "I did not know, nor could believe the powerful attraction, that charcoal, or iron appear to have for water; when they are intensely heated, they will find and attract it in the midst of the hottest fire through any pores in the retort."23

Now since water is essential to the reduction of metals in low degrees of heat; and since that fluid is always present, when metals are reduced by charcoal in high degrees of heat; it is manifest, that charcoal acts in the same manner in both these temperatures; and since water is easily, and instantly, decomposed by charcoal at a red heat, as the Antiphlogistians themselves allow; it clearly follows that their theory of metallic reduction is erroneous: for since the water is instantly decomposed by the charcoal, it is a necessary consequence, that its carbon must unite with the oxygen of the water, while the hydrogen of the latter unites in its nascent state, with the oxygen of the metal, and reduces it, forming a new quantity of water equal to that decomposed: this new quantity of water may be decomposed in its turn: so that a thimble full of water would be sufficient to reduce any quantity of metal; provided the water were prevented from escaping, and time enough allowed.

Beside this source of water, the air of the atmosphere, which contributes to support the fire is an inexhaustible magazine of water: and the hotter the air is, the more water it holds in solution; as M. Le Roy has demonstrated.24 Moreover all metallic oxids and ores contain a large proportion of water.

From this view it appears, that the manner in which charcoal and other combustible bodies effect the reduction of metals, is by assisting to decompose water, the hydrogen of which is therefore the only reducer of the metals.

In order to point out the difference between this opinion and that of the Antiphlogistians, I shall present the reader with M. Lavoisier's idea of metallic reduction.

"It cannot be doubted," says that celebrated chymist, "that charcoal at a red heat takes oxygen from all metallic substances; this is a fact against which no exception can be made; and it is the foundation of the whole theory of metallic reduction."

But the experiments in this essay demonstrate, that this assertion is erroneous in every instance of metallic reduction; for, so far is it from being true, that charcoal takes oxygen from all metallic substances; it never does so in one single instance, since its carbon always unites with the oxygen of the water, the hydrogen of which unites immediately to the oxygen of the metal, and reduces it.

"But this action of charcoal on oxygen," adds M. Lavoisier, "this property, which it possesses of taking it from metallic substances, is not so strong in the cold, as at a red heat, since we are unacquainted with any metallic revivification effected by charcoal without heat."25

It is evident that this mode of reasoning is no longer of any weight, since charcoal does reduce metals in the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere.

The reason charcoal is more powerful in high degrees of heat, than other reducers of the metals, is its great fixity in the fire, and the immense force with which it attracts and imprisons water in its pores, thus preventing its escape till it be decomposed by an affinity, which is much more complex than has been hitherto imagined.

Another reason of the superior power of charcoal in metallic reduction is, that it forms a volatile elastic fluid with the oxygen of the water, which flies off, and consequently does not re-act on the metal, or disturb, or impede by its presence, the action of the reducing powers; advantages that phosphorus or any other combustible substance, which forms a fixed acid, that re-acts on the metal, can never possess.

CHAPTER VIII.
REDUCTION OF METALS
BY
LIGHT.

THE next substance I shall treat of, is Light, which seems well adapted to illustrate the theory of metallic reduction; as in experiments made with this substance, water can be more effectually excluded, than in trials with any other reducer of the metals.

Before any decisive experiments could be made on light, or indeed any other reducer of the metals, it is obvious that we should first ascertain the effects of water itself in the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere; to determine this point the two following experiments were made.

EXPERIMENT I.

GOLD.

A piece of silk was immersed in an aqueous solution of nitro-muriate of gold, and suspended in a phial over water; the phial was corked, covered with black silk, and placed in a dark closet to prevent the action of light. The experiment was continued from the 20th of July to the 20th of October, during which time the silk was frequently observed, and found to continue moist, but no alteration could be perceived, except that the yellow colour which the solution of gold gave the silk, was changed to a light brown.

The silk was now taken out of the phial, and a solution of phosphorus in ether applied to it; shortly after, a white metallic film appeared; the silk was then kept wet with water, and in some time reduced gold of its proper colour appeared.

EXPERIMENT II.

SILVER.

A bit of silk which was dipped in an aqueous solution of nitrate of silver, was suspended in a phial over water, and placed in a dark closet from the 20th of July to the 20th of October, and examined from time to time, but no alteration could be observed, its white colour continued pure and unchanged.

The silk was now taken out of the phial, and the silver was immediately reduced by means of a solution of phosphorus in ether.

Hence it appears, that water alone has not the power of reducing metals in the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere.

EXPERIMENT III.

GOLD.

On the 24th of July a piece of silk was immersed in a solution of nitro-muriate of gold in water, and dried by a gentle heat; it was then suspended in a window exposed to the sunbeams as much as possible; no change was perceived on it till the 26th, when the margin of the silk began to assume a purple tinge, which increased gradually, and on the 29th exhibited a few obscure specks of reduced gold on the side of the silk opposed to the light.

The purple tinge continued to increase, and the yellow which the solution of gold gave the silk decreased gradually, till on the 27th of August the colour was a mixture of purple and light brown.

The reduction of the gold seemed to keep pace with these changes of colour, and was very evident on some parts of the silk even in the gray light, but much more so in sunshine; these changes were observed till the 20th of October; the experiment was then discontinued, and scarce any reduced gold could be seen on the side of the silk not opposed to the light.

That this slight reduction of the gold and changes of colour in the silk, depended on water absorbed from the air of the chamber, will appear from the following experiments.

EXPERIMENT IV.

GOLD.

A bit of silk which was dipped in the solution of gold employed in the preceding experiment was dried and suspended in a chrystal phial over dry carbonate of potash; the phial was then corked, and further secured from external humidity by covering the cork with wax: it was now placed in a dark closet twenty-four hours, that the carbonate of potash might have sufficient time to attract all the moisture it could from the air of the phial, before exposing it to the action of light.

The phial was then placed in a window exposed as much as possible to the solar light, from the 24th of July to the 20th of October, and carefully observed; the same side of the silk was always opposed to the light, and had the yellow tinge, which the solution of gold gave, altered to a brownish yellow: but the other side of the silk suffered no visible change whatever, nor could any purple tint, or the smallest vestige of reduced gold be perceived.

Another bit of silk which was immersed in the same solution of gold and dried by a gentle heat, was suspended over some dry carbonate of potash, contained in a chrystal phial covered with black silk, and placed in a dark closet during the same space of time, but underwent no visible change whatever.

Both these bits of silk were now taken out of the phials, and the gold was instantly restored to its metallic splendour by means of water and a solution of phosphorus in ether; a proof that the nitro-muriate of gold in these bits of silk, suffered no change during that space of time.

EXPERIMENT V.

GOLD.

A piece of silk, which was dipped in the same solution of gold, and placed on a china plate exposed to the sunbeams, was kept moderately wet with water during the experiment; the first alteration observed was, that the yellow colour of the silk began to change to a faint green, succeeded by a purple tinge, which in about fifteen minutes exhibited some particles of reduced gold; soon after the threads of the silk, which acquired this purple tint were gilded with gold; and, in about an hour, the whole of the silk was covered with a superb coat of reduced gold, exhibiting the texture of the silk in a beautiful manner.

The purple tinge, which attended the reduction, verged in some parts on red, and in others on blue.

This experiment, which is very amusing, I have repeated times unnumbered; and when the sun is powerful, and the solution of gold properly prepared and of due strength, the coat of reduced gold is so bright and dazzling, as to distress the eye of the beholder.

I find that the best way of preparing a solution of gold for this purpose, is to separate the oxid of gold from its solution in nitro-muriatic acid by means of good ether.

The silk may be dipped in this solution, and when the ether evaporates, kept moderately wet with distilled water.

It was with this solution in ether that I first reduced gold in the fibres of silk, and it was by means of the same I discovered, that water was a necessary condition in these reductions by light.

EXPERIMENT VI.

GOLD.

A bit of silk, which was dipped in a solution of nitro-muriate of gold on alcohol, and placed in a china saucer exposed to the sunbeams, was kept wet with alcohol for the space of an hour, but no change even in the colour, which the solution of gold gave the silk, could be perceived.

The alcohol diffused the solution of gold unequally through the silk, the rays of the sun being intercepted, suspended the experiment; there was no sunshine on the following day: on the third day the silk was again exposed to the sunbeams, and kept wet with alcohol, which extracted a yellow tincture; a proof that the gold in the silk suffered no degree of reduction; the sun shone pretty strong for an hour or more, and at length a faint tinge of purple, followed by some reduced gold, appeared.

The preceding experiments leave us no room to doubt that the purple tinge, and the small quantity of reduced gold, that appeared in this experiment, depended on water attracted from the air, or deposited in the silk by the alcohol during its evaporation.

Mr. Scheele reduced a solution of nitro-muriate of gold in water by exposing it in a phial for a fortnight to the rays of the sun.26

Mr. Lewis also made many experiments on the staining of marble, and other substances with metallic solutions, and light.27

EXPERIMENT VII.

SILVER.

A piece of silk, which was immersed in a solution of nitrate of silver in water, was dried by a gentle heat, and exposed to the light of the sun as much as possible, in the window of a chamber from the 20th of July to the 20th of October.

In less than an hour the silk acquired a reddish brown colour; next day the colour became more intense and gradually increased, till on the third day it bordered on black, which increased slowly; at length part of it became gray, and a few minute particles of reduced silver could be distinguished; the black tinge gradually disappeared, and the silk was of a reddish brown colour; the reduced silver had a gray cast.

The following experiments demonstrate, that the changes of colour and the few particles of semi-reduced silver, depended on water attracted from the atmosphere.

EXPERIMENT VIII.

SILVER.

A bit of silk was immersed in part of the same solution of nitrate of silver in water, and dried in the dark, the silk retained its white colour; it was then suspended over dry carbonate of potash in a chrystal phial, which was corked and secured from the ingress of moisture by covering the cork with wax.

The phial was left in a dark closet twenty-four hours, that the salt might imbibe as much moisture as possible from the silk and air.

The phial was then placed in a window, exposed as much as possible to the rays of the sun, from the 24th of July to the 20th of October; the silk scarcely suffered any visible change, except a very faint tinge of reddish brown, which was best seen by transmitted light; for the silk viewed by reflected light appeared nearly white; but that even this tinge, slight as it was, depended on a minute quantity of moisture, which the carbonate of potash was unable to extract, appears from the next experiment.

EXPERIMENT IX.

SILVER.

A piece of silk was dipped in a solution of fused nitrate of silver in alcohol and carefully dried; it was then suspended over a quantity of concentrated sulphuric acid in a chrystal phial, which was coated with a double fold of black paper and gum arabic, reaching somewhat above the level of the acid to prevent the light from acting on it; the phial was corked, and to exclude moisture more effectually, the cork was covered with wax.

The phial was now placed in a dark closet twenty-four hours, that the humidity of the enclosed silk and air might be attracted by the acid; it was then placed in a window, exposed as much as possible to the rays of the sun, from the 19th of July to the 26th of October, but the silk underwent no visible change whatever; its white colour remained pure and unaltered.

The silk at the end of this period was taken out of the phial, and wetted with water, a solution of phosphorus in ether was then applied to it, and instantly the metallic splendour of the silver appeared,

Another bit of silk which was immersed in a solution of nitrate of silver in water, and dried in the dark, was suspended over dry carbonate of potash in a phial, and placed in a dark closet about two months; the silk underwent no visible alteration whatever; its white colour remained pure.

I was desirous of knowing if the nitrate of silver in this bit of silk suffered any change, that might render it incapable of reduction; I therefore took it out of the phial, and divided it into two parts; one of these was wetted with water, and the silver was instantly reduced by a solution of phosphorus in ether. The other part, which was suspended in a window, exposed to the air of the chamber and rays of the sun, soon acquired a reddish brown colour.

Hence it is evident, that these changes of colour indicate partial reductions of the metal, and that they never happen without the presence of water.

EXPERIMENT X.

SILVER.

A bit of silk, which was dipped in a solution of nitrate of silver in water, was placed on a China saucer, exposed to the rays of the sun, and kept moderately wet with water; in a few minutes the white colour of the silk was changed to a reddish brown, which by degrees became darker, and in about three or four hours, though the solar rays were often languid and intercepted, acquired a blackish gray colour, most of the reddish brown having disappeared; next day there was no sunshine, but towards the evening, particles of reduced silver were visible on the side of the silk opposed to the light.

EXPERIMENT XI.

SILVER.

A bit of silk, which was immersed in a solution of nitrate of silver in alcohol, and exposed to the beams of the sun, as in the preceding experiment, was kept moderately wet with alcohol, but resisted the action of the light much longer than the preceding; however in some time, specks and lines of a reddish brown began to appear on some parts of the silk; next day, though there was no sunshine, the reddish brown colour increased a little; on the third day it became more intense, but no black, or gray colour, or particle of reduced silver, could be observed.

Whoever compares this with the preceding experiments, can have no doubt that the changes of colour which appeared in this experiment, depended on water attracted from the air, or deposited in the silk by the alcohol during its evaporation.

The experiments detailed in this chapter, prove beyond the power of contradiction,

1. That water is essential to the reduction of metals by light; for these experiments demonstrate that the reduction cannot take place without water, and that it is always in proportion to the quantity of that fluid present.

2. That light does not reduce metals by giving them phlogiston, as Messrs. Macquer and Scheele supposed; for was this opinion true, light should reduce them without the aid of water, and as well with alcohol as with water.

3. Light does not reduce metals by fusing and expelling their oxygen, as the Antiphlogistians imagine; for were this its mode of agency, the reduction should happen without the assistance of water, and as well with alcohol as with water.

4. Light is a combustible body, for it acts like hydrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, and charcoal, in the reduction of metals.

Since water then is essential to the reduction of metals by light, and since light does not reduce metals by giving them phlogiston, nor by fusing and expelling their oxygen, it follows, that the water is either decomposed, or that it unites with metallic earths, and constitutes their phlogiston, or that it unites with and separates their oxygenous principle; but as the two last suppositions are inadmissible, it is obvious that light reduces the metals by decomposing water.

After explaining the manner in which other combustible bodies reduce the metals by decomposing water, it will not be difficult to explain how light too produces the same effect.

But in order to facilitate the explanation, it must be premised,

1. That it is a law of attraction, that when any body is deprived to a certain degree, of another, for which it has a strong affinity, the attraction of the former for the latter is much increased.

2. That light has a strong attraction for oxygen, or the base of vital air.

3. That when oxygen is condensed, and fixed in any substance, it contains much less light and caloric than it does in the gaseous state.

4. That the oxygenous principle exists in water in this condensed state, and consequently has a strong attraction for light.

Therefore when light reduces the metals, it attracts the oxygen of the water, while the hydrogen of the latter unites in its nascent state to the oxygen of the metal and reduces it, forming at the same time a quantity of water equal to that decomposed.

Hence it follows that the light is oxygenated and changed into vital air, while the metal is restored to its combustible state.

CHAPTER IX.
REDUCTION OF METALS
BY
ACIDS.

IT is well known that solutions of gold throw up films of the reduced metal to the surface of the fluid, and sides of the phials that contain them.

It has been shewn in the seventh chapter, that this effect depends on the presence of water, which is further illustrated by the following experiments.

EXPERIMENT I.

SILVER.

A drachm of saturated solution of nitrate of silver in distilled water was mixed with half an ounce of vinegar, in a few minutes a precipitate was formed; the whole was then poured on a filter and washed with distilled water; the precipitate acquired a bluish gray metallic appearance; the liquor which passed the filter, got a brown colour and became blackish; next day bright films of reduced silver floated on the liquor, and in some months after, a considerable part of the inner surface of the phial was coated with reduced silver. Distilled vinegar did not produce this effect.

EXPERIMENT II.

PLATINA.

If a solution of the ore of platina in nitro-muriatic acid be evaporated to dryness, and the salt dissolved in water, films of a livid white metallic appearance are thrown up to the surface.

EXPERIMENT III.

TIN.

Some tin, which was dissolved in a china cup in muriatic acid and evaporated to dryness, was dissolved in distilled water; immediately white metallic films appeared on the surface of the liquor, and after some hours, the whole surface of the solution was covered with a continuous metallic pellicle, which reflected all the colours of the rainbow, in a beautiful manner.

EXPERIMENT IV.

MERCURY.

Mr. Bergman says, "calcined mercury is reduced by digestion in acid of salt; but the cause has not yet been sufficiently explored."28

As this reduction of mercury by muriatic acid is doubted of by some, I made the following experiment.

A quantity of precipitate per se was put into a china cup placed on hot sand, and some muriatic acid was poured on it; the oxid was gradually dissolved, and the digestion continued till the acid was nearly evaporated, some distilled water was then poured on the salt, and minute films of a bright metallic appearance floated on the surface.

A nitrate of mercury was evaporated to dryness, the salt acquired a slight tinge of yellow; the cup was removed from the hot sand, and some water poured on the salt; immediately bright films of reduced mercury appeared, and in about three or four hours the whole surface of the solution was covered with a metallic pellicle, parts of which had the colour and splendour of the metal, and other parts reflected a wonderful variety of the most beautiful calours.

EXPERIMENT V.

ARSENIC.

A quantity of white oxid of arsenic and muriatic acid was digested in the same manner in a china cup, a smart heat was continued till most of the acid evaporated and left behind a mass of the consistence of tar, the surface of which had a gray appearance; after it cooled, some distilled water was poured on, it diffused a disagreeable smell, and films of reduced arsenic were thrown up to the surface; these were for some time remarkably bright, but soon became of a dull gray colour, owing to the rapid tendency of this metal to spontaneous calcinafion.

EXPERIMENT VI.

MANGANESE.

Some concentrated sulphuric acid was poured on a quantity of the [missing words] china cup, placed on hot sand; an effervescence was visible, but no sulphurous acid gas was exhaled; the cup was removed from the sand, before any perceptible quantity of the acid evaporated; then some water was poured on the mixture, and instantly the surface of the fluid was covered with very brilliant metallic films, and at the same time the solution acquired a rose colour.

Some of the same oxid of manganese was dissolved in nitric acid, in which a bit of sugar was put, the solution was poured into a china cup placed on hot sand, and as the evaporation proceeded, bright metallic films appeared on the surface.

Mr. Bindheim of Moscow relates, that he reduced the aerated calx of manganese dissolved in nitrous acid; "the solution was placed upon an open fire in a glass retort."29

Happening to pour out a very largely diluted solution of sulphate of iron, I was surprised to find the flags of the court in an hour or two after, covered with large films of a livid white metallic aspect, these films after the water evaporated, remained on the flags several days.

In consequence of this I poured a largely diluted solution of sulphate of iron into several shallow vessels [missing words] found the surface of the solution covered with abundance or bright metallic films.

I also found that a largely diluted solution of muriate of zinc throws up bright metallic films to the surface.

The reduction of metals by acids is a very convincing proof of the decomposition of water, and seems inexplicable on any other principle.

The reduction and calcination of metals by heat and electricity are naturally explained on the same principle; Dr. Priestley informs us in his History of Electricity, Vol. I. p. 344, that S. Beccaria revived several of the metals by the electric shock. It is obvious that the electric fluid produces this effect in the same manner, that other combustible bodies do, viz. by decomposing water. When the red oxid of mercury is reduced in close vessels by heat, the latter attracts the oxygen of the water, contained both in the oxid and in the air of the vessels, while the hydrogen of the water unites to the oxygen of the mercury, reduces it, and forms a quantity of water equal to that decomposed.

It is found, that if light and caloric act both at the same time, the reduction is effected with more facility than if either acted separately; in this case, the superior efficacy of the combined action of light and caloric resembles that of other compound reducers of the metals; as that of sulphurated hydrogen gas, phosphorated hydrogen gas, alkaline sulphure, &c. which are more powerful than simple hydrogen gas, sulphur, or phosphorus.

This superior efficacy of compound reducers, is similar to what happens with some other combinations of combustible bodies, as pyrites, pyrophori, a mixture of lead and tin, &c. which have a more powerful attraction for oxygen, than any of their ingredients in a separate state.

Other acids, as the gallic, the tartarous, the formic, &c. and also alkalis, as ammonia and soda, hare the power of reducing some of the metals, facts well known to chymists.

CHAPTER X.
OXYGENATION
OF
COMBUSTIBLE BODIES.

IT has been shewn, in the preceding chapters, that water is essential to the reduction of metals; that it is always decomposed in that process, and that the reducing substances are oxygenated by the oxygen of the water, while the hydrogen of the latter reduces the metals.

That water is also decomposed in every instance of oxygenation, and that the oxygen of water alone oxygenates combustible bodies will appear from the following observations.

AZOTE.

The first case of oxygenation, we shall consider, is that of Azote, in an experiment of Dr. Priestley, which has been urged by Mr. Kirwan with great success against the Antiphlogistians.

"If the electric spark be taken in nitrous air, it will be reduced to one-third of its bulk, and the residuum is mere phlogisticated air, and a little acid is deposited. Now the Antiphlogistians own that nitrous air contains both pure air and phlogisticated air; since therefore this pure air disappears, is it not evident that it was converted into water? and since the formation of water requires the presence of inflammable air, does it not follow that the nitrous air contained this also?"30

To this objection M. Berthollet replies, that the diminution of the nitrous gas "is owing to the combination of the mercury with the oxygen, which existed in the gas."31

But this answer is insufficient, as it does not account for the water and acid that appeared; and indeed by this experiment, the Antiphlogistians are refuted on their own principles, and the decomposition of water is incontestably proved; for as nitrous acid could not be formed without more oxygen than what existed in the nitrous air, is it not evident that this oxygen must be derived from the water contained in the nitrous air? It is obvious then, that the water of the gas was decomposed, which seems to have been effected in the following manner.

The electric spark diminishes the attraction of the constituent principles of the water for each other; hence the azote of the gas unites with the oxygen of [missing words] the hydrogen of the latter combines with the oxygen of the gas; and thus water and nitrous acid are formed.

The formation of nitrous acid in Mr. Cavendish's noted experiment, cannot be explained on any other principle than the decomposition of water: when the electric spark is taken in a mixture of azotic gas and vital air, the water of these airs is decomposed; the electric flame lessens the force with which the oxygen and hydrogen of the water adhere; hence the azote seizes the oxygen of the water and forms nitrous acid, while the hydrogen of the water unites with the oxygen of the vital air, and forms a quantity of water equal to that decomposed.

When nitrous and vital air are mixed, the whole mass "hisses, turns red, grows warm, and contracts in bulk," the azote of the nitrous air attracts the oxygen of the water and forms nitrous acid, while the hydrogen of the water unites in its nascent state with the oxygen of the vital air, and forms a quantity of water equal to that decomposed.

Hence while the azote of the nitrous air is oxygenated, the caloric is restored to its combustible state.

"But it is to be observed," says M. Bergman, treating of this experiment, "that the decomposition of nitrous air is the effect of a double attraction; the phlogiston is attracted by the vital [missing words] part by the water. Therefore, when the mixture is made in a phial immersed in mercury, the experiment fails."32

HYDROGEN.

The combustion of hydrogen gas with vital air is explicable only on the decomposition of the water contained in these airs; thus when flame, or a glowing body is applied to a mixture of them, the attraction of the principles of the water for each other is dimi- nished; therefore the hydrogen of the inflammable air unites with the oxygen of the water, while the hydrogen of the latter seizes the oxygen of the vital air; thus the whole bulk of the airs which are changed into water disappears, and their light and caloric are restored to the combustible state.

Hence it appears that water is not formed during the combustion of vital and inflammable air, in the manner the Antiphlogistians suppose.

Indeed it is obvious, that if these airs contained no water they could never be burned; for since they are already saturated with light and caloric, they can have no attraction for any additional quantity of these fluids; and consequently can suffer no other change from the light or caloric of a glowing body than a greater degree of expansion, and therefore could never unite.

The same reasoning applies to the combustion of all elastic fluids.

PHOSPHORUS.

Vital air always contains a large proportion of water; when phosphorus is burned in this air it attracts the oxygen of the water, and forms phosphoric acid, while the hydrogen of the water unites with the oxygen of the gas, and forms water which unites with the acid.

Hence the weight of the acid formed is equal to the weights of the oxygen gas and phosphorus consumed; and the light and caloric, which appear during the combustion are restored to their combustible state.

This explanation is confirmed by an observation of Mr. Bergman, who says,

"In vital air, without the aid of external heat, phosphorus is consumed very slowly, and scarce at all unless water be present."33

Therefore the phosphorus does not unite to the oxygen of the vital air as M. Lavoisier supposes, but to the oxygen of the water contained in the oxygen gas.

SULPHUR.

When sulphur is burned in vital air it attracts the oxygen of the water and forms sulphuric acid, while the hydrogen of the water attracts the oxygen of the gas, and forms a quantity of water equal to that de- composed: the light and caloric are at the same time restored to their combustible state.

The sulphur then does not unite with the oxygen of the vital air as the Antiphlogistians imagine, but with the oxygen of the water contained in that gas.

CHARCOAL.

In like manner during the combustion of charcoal in vital air, the carbon attracts the oxygen of the water, and forms carbonic acid, while the hydrogen of the water unites with the oxygen of the vital air, and forms a new quantity of water equal to that decomposed.

Hence the carbon of the charcoal does not unite with the oxygen of the vital air as M. Lavoisier supposes, but with the oxygen of the water contained in that gas.

That water is decomposed in every instance of combustion, is further proved by attending to what passes during the burning of a common fire; the carbon of the fuel combines with the oxygen of the water and forms carbonic acid, while the hydrogen of the water unites partly with the oxygen, and partly with the azote of the atmosphere, and forms water, and the ammonia which abounds in soot.

From these observations it is evident, that M. Lavoisier's account of the formation of water and acids is erroneous, and inadequate to explain the phenomena.

The different kinds of fermentation are so many instances of the decomposition of water; in every case of them, combustible bodies are oxygenated by the oxygen of the water, while others are restored by its hydrogen to their combustible state.

Hence the azote, ammonia, and carbonic acid of fermentation, the inflammable air of marshes, mines, &c. – the azotic and hydrogen gases ascend into the atmosphere, and there meeting the vital air discharged from the water of plants, &c. form new quantities of air and water.

When the azote is oxygenated, it unites with the oxygen of the water contained in the air and forms atmospheric air, and sometimes perhaps nitrous acid; the hydrogen of the water combines at the same time with the oxygen of the vital air, and forms a quantity of water equal to that decomposed.

But when the hydrogen is oxygenated, a quantity of water double that decomposed is regenerated; for the hydrogen of the gas unites with the oxygen of the water, while the hydrogen of the latter seizes the oxygon of the vital air; and thus a quantity of water double that decomposed is formed, and that part of it which the atmosphere cannot suspend descends in the form of rain.

When these decompositions arc rapid, the phenomena of thunder and lightning appear.

This account of the renovation of our atmosphere explains why the phenomena of thunder and lightning appear sometimes with, and sometimes without rain; and also accounts for the production of the nitrous acid, which Mr. Margraaf discovered in the purest snow.

The breathing of fishes is a striking proof of the decomposition of water in respiration.

For this view of the formation of our atmosphere I am indebted to a friend well acquainted with the experiments related in this essay, and also for the application of the opinion which I venture to advance to the respiration of animals.

The phenomena of vegetation cannot be explained on any other principle, than the decomposition of water by heat and light, which uniting to the oxygen of the water contained in vegetables, change it into streams of vital air that serve to renovate our atmosphere; the hydrogen of the water at the same time contributes to form the oil and other principles of plants, and when these are decomposed by the various processes of combustion, forms a quantity of water equal to that consumed in their formation.

The changes, which nitric acid suffers by exposure to heat or light, are explained with ease on this principle; the light unites with the oxygen of the water contained in the nitric acid and forms vital air, while the hydrogen of the water combines with the oxygen of the acid, and forms a new quantity of water equal to that decomposed; thus the nitric is converted into the ruddy nitrous acid.

METALS.

According to the Antiphlogistians, "In every metallic solution by an acid, the metal in order to become oxided, decomposes either the acid itself or the water of solution, or it obtains from the atmosphere the requisite quantity of oxygene. In the second case, hydrogenous gas in a state of greater or less purity is disengaged, and the acid remains entire without decomposition, which is proved by the quantity of alkali necessary to saturate it. In the first case, one of the principles of the acid, or the acid deprived of part of its oxygene is disengaged and fused in the caloric, which is separated at the same time; such are ni- trous gas and sulphurous acid gas. In the third case, neither the water nor the acid are changed; such is the solution of copper by the acetous acid.

"The muriatic acid and the vegetable acids, which are formed of radicals, or acidifiable principles, which have more affinity with oxygene than the metals have, are not decomposed by these metals, and the oxygene is always afforded to these last by the water or atmosphere. Hence the solutions by these acids afford only hydrogenous gas, or do not effervesce at all.

"There are some cases in which the water and the acid, are at the same time decomposed by the metal, as in the solution of tin in the nitric acid, according to the observation of M. De Morveau.

"Tin is so greedy of oxygene, and requires so large a quantity for its saturation, that after having absorbed that of the nitric acid, and reduced it to the state of azote, it decomposes likewise the water, and disengages hydrogen. These two principles being separated from their first compounds, unite together and immediately form ammoniac. Hence there is no disengagement of elastic fluid. In this case it appears, that the formation of ammoniac, in the solution of tin by the nitric acid always takes place; for by throwing quicklime or caustic fixed alkali into this solution, there is always a disengagement of ammoniac."34

It is evident then that this account of the oxygenation of metals, given by the Antiphlogistians, is equally complex as their account of metallic reduction, and improbable; since every case, in which they deny the decomposition of water, and derive the oxygen from other sources, is easily and naturally explained on that principle, as will appear from what follows.

Thus when mercury or silver is dissolved in nitric acid, the metal attracts the oxygen of the water, while the hydrogen of the latter unites with and separates more or less of the oxygen of the acid, which is thus changed into nitrous air.

The same thing happens during the solution of other metals in this acid, the only difference being the greater or less energy and rapidity with which they combine with the oxygen of the water.

This decomposition of water is confirmed by the solution of tin in this acid, in which the Antiphlogistians allow the decomposition of the acid, and the water too, for ammonia is formed by part of the hydrogen of the water, and azote of the acid.

In every case of metallic solution by sulphuric and muriatic acids, whether concentrated or diluted, water is decomposed; the metals attracting the oxygen of the water, while its hydrogen escapes in the form of inflammable air, or unites partly with the oxygen of the acid, and partly with caloric; hence the volatile sulphurous acid, and muriatic acid air obtained, always contain some hydrogen gas, as appears from the following observation of M. Bergman.

"By means of vitriolic acid, inflammable air is obtained from zinc and iron, as also by means of marine acid; but from the other metals dissolved in vitriolic acid, we obtain another species of air, called vitriolic acid air: and by the marine acid, another similar to the former, called muriatic air, but both, more or less mixed with inflammable air."35

Again, when copper is dissolved in the acetous acid, the copper attracts the oxygen of the water, while the hydrogen of the latter unites with the oxygen of the atmosphere and forms water; hence no effervescence appears.

When alkalies dissolve metals, the latter are always oxygenated at the expense of the water, which holds the alkali in solution; thus when lead and copper are dissolved, the metals combine with the oxygen of the water, while its hydrogen unites to the oxygen of the atmosphere and forms water; hence no hydrogen gas appears.

The oxygenation of metals and other substances by heat and air is easily explained on the same principle; the metals, &c. unite with the oxygen of the water contained in atmospheric air, while the hydrogen of the water combines with the oxygen of the air, and forms a quantity of water equal to that decomposed.

This explanation is clearly proved by an experiment of Mr. Bergman on the regulus of manganese, which if kept in a dry place, retains its metallic splendour, but if exposed to moisture, is soon oxygenated, and loses its lustre.36

It is further confirmed by the authority of the distinguished Mr. Scheele, who says that "the water contained in common atmospheric air is the chief cause of the ignition of pyrophorus," which he proved by the following experiment.

"I made a very dry air by putting some very small pieces of quicklime into a small matrass, then I put the neck of another matrass into that of the first, so that the air of both might communicate, and I luted the crevices with wax. Two days afterwards I separated the empty matrass, and poured half an ounce of pyrophorus from my phial into it, and immediately carefully shut the aperture up; but I did not observe that it grew in the least warm; an hour after this I put a sponge moistened in water into the matrass, and shut it up again: a few minutes after the pyrophorus began strongly to be heated, and some pieces kindled spontaneously."37

Many other facts might be adduced to prove, that oxygenation cannot take place without water, as the combustion of mixtures of iron filings, sulphur and water, of alkaline sulphure and water, &c. in which the water is decomposed, and the combustible bodies oxygenated by its oxygen.

It is evident then from the experiments and observations related in this essay, that water is essential to the oxygenation of combustible bodies, and that it is the only source of the oxygen that oxygenates them: it is also evident that when one body is oxygenated, another at least is restored to the combustible state: hence it appears that the oxygenation of combustible bodies is never effected by a single affinity.

The Antiphlogistians treating of the precipitation of metals by each other say,

"Since the metals cannot remain united to the acids, but in the state of oxides of a determinate degree, it is easily conceived, that by plunging into a metallic solution a metal which has a stronger affinity with oxygene than that which is dissolved, the former must deprive the latter of its oxygene, take its place in the acid, and cause the second to subside in a form more or less metallic, accordingly as it has deprived it of more or less oxygene. This is the reason of the precipitation of silver by copper, copper by iron,"38 &c.

But this account of the precipitation of metals by one another cannot be admitted, for it has been proved in every instance of reduction related in this essay, that water is decomposed, and that its hydrogen, is the only substance that restores bodies to their combustible state.

There is no reason then to suppose that nature deviates in this particular case, from that uniform simplicity, which she constantly observes in all her operations.

Therefore it is obvious, that when one metal precipitates another in a form more or less metallic, the precipitant unites with the oxygen of the water, while the hydrogen of the latter combines with and separates the oxygen of the precipitated metal, and thus reduces it.

The experiments made with phosphorus and metallic solutions in ether, alcohol, and water, prove the truth of this explanation, and shew that when one metal precipitates another in the metallic form, it acts like a stick of phosphorus, decomposing the water.

This account of the reduction of one metal by another is supported by the opinion of Mr. Bergman, who says,

"It is well known, that the calx of copper dissolved in vitriolic acid is precipitated in its metallic form on the addition of iron; and that by means of a double elective attraction, for the iron dissolving in the acid would form an inflammable air by its phlo- giston, were not the copper present, which takes it up."39

The same author remarks, that a small excess of acid is necessary, and that without it no precipitation begins.

Now since water is decomposed by iron and sulphuric acid, it must be allowed, that when iron is immersed in a solution of sulphate of copper, the water is decomposed by the iron and excess of acid, the iron attracting the oxygen of the water, while the hydrogen of the latter unites to the oxygen of the copper, reduces it, and forms a quantity of water equal to that decomposed.

The precipitation of silver in its metallic form by iron and other metals is to be explained in the same manner, and not by a single affinity as the Antiphlogistians imagine.

The reduction of gold and some other metals, by solutions of sulphate of iron and muriate of tin, is readily accounted for on the principles advanced here; for fresh made solutions of sulphate of iron and muriate of tin contain hydrogen, and have the power of decomposing water; the oxygen of which unites with the iron and tin, while its hydrogen seizes the oxygen of the gold, &c. reduces it, and forms a quantity of water equal to that decomposed.

The decomposition of water is further proved by the large dilution necessary to form the arbor Dianæ, the purple precipitate of Cassius, and other instances of the reduction of metals by one another.40

CHAPTER XI.
CONCLUSION.

I SHALL conclude with a general view of the inferences, which I ventured to advance in this essay.

1. Neither the Phlogistians nor Antiphlogistians account in a satisfactory manner for the increase of weight, which bodies acquire during combustion.

2. Their account of the formation of water, acids, and oxids, is erroneous; for it has been shewn that the oxygen of water alone oxygenates combustible bodies.

3. Combustible bodies, as hydrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, charcoal, light, &c. are capable of reducing the metals in the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere; and indeed I might add at a much lower temperature, as I frequently experienced.

4. Combustible bodies do not reduce the metals by giving them phlogiston, as the Phlogistians suppose; nor by uniting with and separating their oxygen, as the Antiphlogistians maintain.

5. Water is essential both to the reduction and oxygenation of bodies, and is always decomposed in these operations.

6. Water does not contribute to metallic reduction merely by dissolving and minutely dividing the particles of metallic salts, and thus removing the impediment opposed to chymical attraction by the attraction of cohesion; for were this the case, metallic solutions in ether and alcohol, in which that impediment is equally removed, should be as readily and effectually reduced as metallic solutions in water are.

This circumstance, in which all the experiments on metallic reduction detailed in this essay exactly coincide, merits particular attention, and shews that the manner, in which combustible bodies effect the reduction, is the same in them all.

7. When one body is oxygenated, another at least, is restored at the same time to its combustible state; and vice versa when one body is restored to its combustible state, another at least is at the same time oxygenated.

8. Quantities of air and water, equal to those decomposed in the different species of combustion, are constantly forming.

Thus nature by maintaining this balance of power between combustible and oxygenated bodies, prevents the return of original chaos.

Since then in every act of combustion, one body at least is oxygenated, and another restored at the same time to its combustible state, the phenomena of combustion may be referred to two heads, viz.

Oxygenation, or the union of oxygen with combustible bodies, and

Reduction, or the restoration of oxygenated bodies to their combustible state.

And since in every instance of combustion water is decomposed, and one body oxygenated by the oxygen of the water, while another is restored to its combustible state by the hydrogen of the same fluid, it follows,

1. That the hydrogen of water is the only substance, that restores bodies to their combustible state.

2. That water is the only source of the oxygen, which oxygenates combustible bodies.

3. That no case of combustion is effected by a single affinity.

This view of combustion may serve to shew how nature is always the same, and maintains her equilibrium by preserving the same quantities of air and water on the surface of our globe; for as fast as these are consumed in the various processes of combustion, equal quantities are formed, and rise regenerated like the Phenix from her ashes.

NOMENCLATURE OF CHYMICAL TERMS
USED IN THIS ESSAY.

NEW NAMES.OLD NAMES.AmmoniaCaustic volatile alkali.Acetite of leadSugar of lead.— copperVerdigris.Azote (nitrogen)Base of phlogisticated air.Azotic gasPhlogisticated air.Alkaline sulphureLiver of sulphur.AlcoholHighly rectified spirit of wine.CarbonPure coal.Carbonic acidFixed air.CaloricHeat.HydrogenBase of inflammable air.— gasInflammable air.Hydrure of sulphurA compound of hydrogen and sulphur.— phosphorusA compound of hydrogen and phosphorus.Muriate of tinSalt of Jupiter.— silverLuna cornea.— arsenicArsenic combined with muriatic acid.— zincMarine salt of zinc.— cobaltMarine salt of cobalt. Nitric acidDephlogisticated nitrous acid.Nitro-muriatic acidAqua regia.Nitro-muriate of goldA compound of gold and aqua regia.— platinaA compound of platina and aqua regia.Nitrate of silverLunar nitre, chrystals of the moon.— mercuryMercurial nitre.— bismuthNitre of bismuth..— manganese— manganese.OxygenBase of vital air.— gasVital air.Oxygenated muriate of mercuryCorrosive sublimate.Prussiate of mercuryA compound of mercury and prussic acid.Phosphorated hydrogen gasPhosphoric air.PotashCaustic vegetable alkali.Sulphuric etherVitriolic ether.Sulphureous acid gasVolatile sulphureous acid.Sulphurated hydrogen gasHepatic air.Sulphate of copperBlue vitriol.— zincWhite do— ironGreen do.— manganeseVitriol of manganese.SodaCaustic mineral alkali.Tartrite of antimonyEmetic tartar.

THE END.

NOTES.

[Page v]

1 Vol. III. p. 127, 138.

[Page vi]

2 Accum's Syst. of Chemistry, Vol. I. p. 247. 2d Eng. Ed.

[Page 28]

3 Essay on Phlogiston, by Mr. Kirwan, new edition, p. 21 and 16.

[Page 30]

4 Experiments on Air and Fire. Eng. trans, p. 174.

[Page 31]

5 Essay on Phlogiston, a new edition, p. 38-166.

[Page 32]

6 Essay on Phlogiston, p. 207.

[Page 33]

7 Essay on Phlogiston, p. 205.

[Page 34]

8 Essay on Phlogiston, p. 14.

[Page 35]

9 Essay on Plogiston. p. 13-15.

10 Ibid. p. 25. and Philo. Trans. Vol. 78. p. 314.

[Page 51]

11 Scheele, p. 161, French translation. This is the usual process for obtaining the Prussic acid.

[Page 55]

12 Roz. Journ. Feb. 1782.

[Page 59]

13 Elective Attractions, English Translation, p. 87.

[Page 62]

14 Or, which is most probable, from water contained in the alcohol, owing to the great difficulty of procuring it perfectly rectified. Am. Ed.

[Page 67]

15 M. Monnet Dissolution de Metaux, p. 159.

16 Phil. Trans. Vol. 73. An. 1783.

[Page 68]

17 Essay on Phlogiston, a new Edit. by M. Kirwan, p. 46.

[Page 119]

18 Priestley, Vol. VI. p. 150.

[Page 120]

19 Chem. Essaye, Vol. III. p. 219.

[Page 167]

20 M. Kirwan. Phil. Trans. for 1786.

[Page 191]

21 Chem. Essay, Vol. II. p. 206 and 207, Eng. trans.

[Page ]

22 Essay en Phlogiston, new ed. by M. Kirwan, p. 61.

23 Phil. Trans. 1785. Vol. LXXV. p. 289.

[Page 196]

24 El. Nat. Hist. & Chem. Eng. Trans. in three volumes, p. 163. Vol. I.

[Page 197]

25 Essay on Phlog. a new ed. by M. Kirwan, p. 60.

[Page 206]

26 Experiments on Air and Fire. Eng. Trans. p. 82.

[Page 207]

27 Commerce of the Arts.

[Page 217]

28 Elective Attractions, Eng. trans, p. 223.

[Page 220]

29 Crell's Chem. Journal, Vol. II. p. 48, Eng. trans.

[Page 224]

30 Essay on Phlogiston, new Ed. p. 82.

31 Ibid. p. 122.

[Page 226]

32 Elec. Attr. Eng, Trans. p. 211.

[Page 228]

33 El. Att. Eng. Trans. p. 213.

[Page 234]

34 Essay on Phlog. new Ed. by Mr. Kirwan, p. 233-235.

[Page 235]

35 Chem. Essays, Vol. II. p. 358. Eng. trans.

[Page 236]

36 Chem. Essays, Vol. II. p. 206 and 207. Eng. trans.

[Page 237]

37 Exp. on Air and Fire, Eng. trans. p. 112 and 130.

[Page 238]

38 Essay on Phlogiston, new edit, by Mr. Kirwan, p. 236 and 237.

[Page 240]

39 Chem. Essays, Vol. II. p. 236, Eng. trans.

[Pages 241-242]

40 It appears impossible to explain, except by the play of double affinity here pointed out, (by which the decomposition of one substance is accompanied with the formation of another,) the uniform state of the atmosphere at all times, and in all places: without this wise provision, let us for a moment consider the immense consumption of oxygen from the atmospheric mass, by the constant processes of respiration from one thousand million inhabitants of the globe; from at least as many animals, and probably myriads of insecls, &c. which all require their proportion of this vivifying element. To these we must add the consumption from domestic and volcanic fiies, from fermentation and other processes continually going on in every region – and with these data, let us estimate the probable amount.

By Hale's experiments, a candle with a flame of half a cubic inch, consumed per minute twenty-six cubic inches of air; which by calculation amounts to about six hundred and fifty nine cubic feet per annum. Now supposing each person, in respiration, to consume the same per annum, it will afford an amount of six hundred and fifty nine thousand millions of cubic feet; as much for animals; probably as much for insects; certainly as much for fires, candles, and other sources of combustion; and the same for every species of fermentative process; and we have the above amount five times multiplied, without extending the view to fish: or equal to three billions, two hundred and ninety-five thousand millions of cubic feet of pure air annually expended; to supply which, nothing but the constant extrication of a similar quantity by co-instantaneous operations, can be supposed adequate to keep the atmosphere in the same uniform state of purity. This apparently could not be the case, were atmospheric oxygen, the sole, or even principal source of supply in these extensive operations: and this view however imperfect, may serve to corroborate the sentiments of the ingenious author.

Am. Ed.

About This Edition

Notes have been moved from the ends of the pages on which they appeared to the end of the book, and numbered sequentially. Page numbers appear at the beginning of the page to which they apply.

Edited by Mary Mark Ockerbloom

Travis McCracken 2024-07-02 Travis McCracken 2024-07-02

INVESTIGATION Former Trump staffers are ‘on the battlefield’ for a Canadian fossil fuel giant

The Narwhal By Matt Simmons (Local Journalism Initiative Reporter) and Mike De Souza

This article is part of a series about revelations from leaked recordings of TC Energy executives.Subscribe to our newsletter,for more on this investigation

In 2017, Michael Evanoff was tapped by former U.S. president Donald Trump to serve as assistant secretary of state for diplomatic security. In his testimony to the Senate foreign state committee, he detailed his previous experience in the foreign service, noting he had completed eight overseas postings, four of which were designated high threat.

“Among other things, I established the first [diplomatic security] liaison position with a U.S. military regional command, managed the largest Russian spy case and damage assessment in NATO history and designed a post-9/11 informant ‘walk-in’ program at our Islamabad embassy that contributed to the capture of Khalid Sheik Muhammad,” he said at the time.

Evanoff now works for TC Energy, a Calgary-based multinational fossil fuel company with offices in Houston and Mexico City. His official title is director of national security policy, geopolitical intelligence and research. From his home in Washington, D.C., the former Trump appointee uses his extensive geopolitical and military background to protect the company’s interests: crude oil and natural gas pipelines in Canada, the United States and Mexico, which earned TC Energy $11 billion in 2023.

A leaked recording of a February TC Energy “lunch and learn” session featuring Evanoff and his colleagues is now pulling back the curtain on internal company discussions, including its apparent strategies about how to influence governments, benefit from geopolitical crises and leverage existing relationships with a range of senior government officials — including the head of Canada’s spy agency.

While TC Energy’s Canadian headquarters are in Calgary, the multinational fossil fuel corporation employs a team of analysts in Washington, D.C., to advise company executives on geopolitical issues. Photo: Jeff McIntosh / The Canadian Press

The conversations, reviewed by The Narwhal, provide fresh insight into how some senior officials at the company believe they are locked in an existential battle as governments around the world move away from fossil fuels in an effort to address the climate crisis. They cover a wide range of discussions about international events that could seriously affect the business of TC Energy and other fossil fuel companies, such as President Joe Biden’s recent decision to pause new permits for liquefied natural gas exports.

“Our focus as a team is to look at what exposes us to hostile complex threats such as nation-states using asymmetric tactics, cyber-threats exploiting vulnerabilities, geopolitical uncertainties impacting global markets and supply chains and evolving regulatory challenges,” Evanoff said on the recording.

While there is nothing unusual about a large multinational company recruiting top politically connected talent and prioritizing robust security measures to protect its assets, most details about their strategies are often tightly guarded secrets.

TC Energy did not directly respond to questions sent by The Narwhal about its team in Washington, D.C., and its influence in Canada.

In an emailed statement, Patrick Muttart, TC Energy’s senior vice-president of external relations, said TC Energy was “disappointed” that recordings of its recent “lunch and learn” sessions “were released externally without authorization.”

Muttart added TC Energy’s operations include providing energy to customers “in North America and around the globe” but did not elaborate on how the company gathers intelligence about geopolitical issues.

‘On the battlefield trying to … protect the TC tower’

The recording appears to be from a presentation that took place on or around February 22, 2024. On the call, several TC Energy staffers based in Washington, D.C., spoke about how they support TC Energy’s external relations work across North America.

Julia Nesheiwat, a former U.S. military intelligence officer and homeland security advisor to Trump, said she and her colleagues are “on the battlefield trying to work every day to protect the TC tower.”

“Sometimes of course we’re on the defense and doing damage control and … making the best of those situations,” Nesheiwat, who is now TC Energy’s vice-president of policy and insights, said on the call. She added the company’s goal is to be proactive and stay “on the offense, when we’re taking it to our opponents.”

Evanoff struck a similar tone. Opening with a military term, he described the team as a “force multiplier.”

“We’re in challenging times here, we all know that,” he said. “The geopolitical intelligence and research team — the GIR team — is vital, and I would say paramount, in safeguarding … TC’s North American energy division.”

In response to The Narwhal’s questions, Muttart, the company’s senior vice-president, explained the company’s mission was to deliver secure, affordable and sustainable energy that powers homes and businesses around the world.

TC Energy builds and operates natural gas pipelines across North America. In Western Canada, the company recently completed construction of its Coastal GasLink pipeline, connecting underground shale gas reserves in B.C.’s northeast to a liquefaction and export facility on the Pacific coast. Photo: Marty Clemens / The Narwhal

“To achieve our mission, we engage with all levels of government and across every community where we operate,” Muttart said. “With governments, opinion leaders and policy-makers across jurisdictions, our role is to advocate for the changes needed to ensure energy security, job creation, affordability and sustainability. We do so for our colleagues, for our customers and for the communities where we operate. We do so with solid, robust and compliant practices and policies for engagement, while always looking for ways to improve.”

TC Energy executive discusses conversations with spy agency

On the February call, Evanoff said the company is actively working to influence global intelligence sharing.

On the recording, he gave details of a meeting he said happened between company CEO François Poirier and Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) director David Vigneault at an intelligence summit in Palo Alto, Calif., in October 2023. The summit, hosted by U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation director Christopher Wray, brought together leaders of the Five Eyes intelligence partnership, a bloc made up of senior officials from the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.

“The [detection of] political threats that come out of [Five Eyes intelligence] are shared and … four countries are actually sharing that with the business community,” Evanoff said. “The fifth one, Canada, is unfortunately hamstrung with the CSIS Act law that stops CSIS from sharing actual security intelligence to Canadian companies. This is a miss, a huge miss, that’s been going on since 1984 — way before the internet.”

David Vigneault, director of the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS), met with TC Energy CEO François Poirier in October 2023. The fossil fuel executive would like to see classified security intelligence shared with industry. Photo: Justin Tang / The Canadian Press

He said Poirier witnessed discussions between Vigneault and Wray in California that revealed “the sharing of information, especially with [the People’s Republic of China] and Russian threats, [is] not getting to our companies in Canada.”

Evanoff said Poirier was “pretty charged” about finding a way to change this. According to the leaked audio, a conversation between the TC Energy CEO and the CSIS director ensued.

“The director of CSIS, David Vigneault, basically said, ‘I have a plan, will you work with me?’ ” Evanoff recounted. “And so [Poirier] absolutely said, ‘Yes, what can we do?’ ”

Evanoff alleged TC Energy analysts then supplied the CSIS director with a document supporting amendments to the Canadian Security Intelligence Service Act that would pave the way for the federal government to share classified security intelligence with industry. He said the approach was consistent with methods used in the United States in the 1980s, with a government department called the Overseas Security Advisory Council.

“We wanted to convey that to the Canadians, to the director. So he’s taken that advice from us to start this,” Evanoff said.

Evanoff said after meetings with the CSIS director and other intelligence officials, Poirier joined a Business Council of Canada committee on national security, and is now in regular contact with Vigneault.

“Our CEO … co-chairs that with Mastercard CEO Canada and it’s something that we’re very proud of and we’ll continue to feed the information to him twice a year,” Evanoff said. “We believe this is great for TC. It’s also great for us to … be top of mind with the Canadian intelligence service and even with the National Security Justice Department and also with RCMP.”

Evanoff did not respond to questions from The Narwhal about his recorded comments.

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Eric Balsam, a spokesperson with CSIS, declined an interview request, but confirmed in a statement that Vigneault and Poirier met in Palo Alto. Balsam said discussions between the two men occurred “in the context of strategic-level engagements with the Business Council of Canada” and its national security group co-chaired by TC Energy’s Poirier. Balsam said the security agency will continue to engage with the business community.

“CSIS works with its partners across the private sector to ensure they are aware of the threat environment and that they have the tools and information they need to protect their interests,” he noted.

He also said the federal government launched public consultations on possible amendments to the legislation in November 2023 to ensure the spy agency has more tools to defend Canada against security threats including foreign interference.

Public consultations about updating the CSIS Act concluded in February, with a majority of participants agreeing the agency should have more tools to share information about threats with industry, universities, local governments and law enforcement as well as other potential targets. A report summarizing the consultations also said a minority of participants expressed concerns about whether any proposed changes would increase threats to privacy. Some also expressed “the need for strong oversight and accountability.”

President Biden and the ‘the battle to define natural gas’

On the February recording, former White House staffer Edward Burrier, now TC Energy’s director of public policy, told his colleagues Biden’s pause on liquefied natural gas (LNG) exports, announced Jan. 26, 2024, is making waves across the industry. (On July 1, a Trump-appointed federal judge blocked Biden’s pause.)

He suggested the Biden administration implemented the pause as a response to worries about the upcoming election and explained how innovative techniques in extracting gas from underground shale reserves pushed companies like TC Energy into the spotlight.

“Thanks to the shale revolution, in just a few short years the U.S. went from importer to exporter of natural gas, becoming the number one last year, surpassing Qatar and Australia,” he said. “The success of [the] industry has definitely put it in the crosshairs of activists.”

“President Biden has really struggled with key demographics: war in the Middle East, student loans, environmental activism,” he continued. “In some ways we’re kind of laughing but it is an eye opener: the White House had top officials meeting with 25-year-old TikTok influencers that were producing LNG videos. It’s through this prism that it’s clear this was entirely a political decision by the White House.”

He added he believes the decision was “facilitated by a group of activists and academics” and said the impact isn’t limited to the United States.

“This decision isn’t just important to us but it’s reverberating around the world. Our allies are worried about U.S. leadership and our adversaries are doing a victory lap.”

TC Energy executives Michael Evanoff, Julia Nesheiwat and Edward Burrier work from Washington, D.C., to protect company interests. Both Evanoff and Nesheiwat are former Trump appointees, and Burrier was a longtime White House staffer before he started his work with the fossil fuel company. Photos: Diplomatic Security Service / Flickr; Wikimedia Commons; Concordia

Burrier noted on the call that Biden’s fossil fuel policies had become an election issue, and predicted Trump, if elected, would overturn the pause on liquefied natural gas exports on day one of a new mandate.

He said he’s paying close attention to messaging from opponents of fossil fuel development, noting “the battle to define natural gas is on.”

Natural gas is a fossil fuel mostly composed of methane. According to the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, over a 20-year period, methane is 80 times more powerful than carbon dioxide in terms of heating the planet.

In B.C., TC Energy recently completed the Coastal GasLink pipeline project which will transport the fossil fuel to the Pacific coast, to be converted into liquefied natural gas and shipped overseas. The oil and gas industry has proposed a number of LNG facilitiesalong the coast to support more production and exports.

Proponents say the gas can help countries like China, Japan and Korea reduce reliance on other fossil fuels, such as coal. That argument is contested by climate scientistswho maintain emissions and leaks during extraction, processing and transport make liquefied natural gas worse for the climate than coal.

Burrier isn’t buying it.

“I often wake up and kind of wonder if I’m on a different planet — reading studies that LNG is dirtier than coal is one of those moments,” he said on the internal call, referring to a study by a Cornell University professor who he described as “a long time anti-natural gas advocate.” He noted the paper wasn’t peer-reviewed.

“I grew up as a young staffer on Capitol Hill and the debate was about drilling in the Alaska National Wildlife Refuge,” he continued. “It was a major kind of fight. [There’s] not one Democrat who says that they’re for that. Keystone XL — these guys don’t even have to think about it. They said they’re instinctively against it. We are at this spot where we cannot let that happen for natural gas exports.”

‘Success of environmental activism’ in U.S. could inspire action in B.C., TC Energy exec worries

Canada’s first major liquefied natural gas export project is nearing completion. LNG Canada, which will be supplied by TC Energy’s Coastal GasLink pipeline, will start shipping the fossil fuel to Asia next year.

“In the short term, in Canada, I think we’ll see some renewed interest in LNG Canada as Asian partners look to diversify,” Burrier said of the impact of the U.S. pause. “But I think if we’re talking about a real opportunity, we’d really have to see the Canadians — the federal government [and] the province — really ready to push through the next set of projects. And I think, to be honest, the Canadian government really doesn’t do competitive policy like that all that well.”

LNG Canada is poised to begin shipping natural gas overseas next year. Edward Burrier, a senior executive with TC Energy, said he doesn’t think President Joe Biden’s pause on U.S. LNG exports will affect Canadian exports much beyond “renewed interest“ in the B.C. export facility. Photo: Marty Clemens / The Narwhal

He cautioned the impacts of Biden’s pause could be more subtle.

“We do have to be worried that the success of environmental activism in the United States could be a jolt for their brethren in B.C.,” he said. “I know again that they’ve called for a pause of Canadian exports, which I always laugh to myself, since they’re still at zero right now.”

“I think we often have to remember that Canada’s aggressive climate policies can themselves present reliability of supply questions to our partners,” he added.

Nesheiwat, the former Homeland Security advisor and now TC Energy vice president, said that’s one of the challenges her team helps to address.

In January, The Narwhal reported how TC Energy lobbied the federal government to exempt liquefied natural gas facilities from a proposed cap on heat-trapping pollution from oil and gas activities. At that time, a federal spokesperson said the government would not grant any exemptions, noting the LNG sector was expected to grow.

“In Canada, our team is dealing with stringent and evolving climate policies or regulatory inefficiencies,” Nesheiwat said on the leaked recording. “The fact is, as a company we’re often navigating these public perceptions and again across multiple countries and cultures.”

Burrier, Nesheiwat and other TC Energy executives spent much of their careers developing and influencing policy in the U.S. TC Energy did not respond to questions about why it hired a Washington D.C.-based team to influence Canadian policies.

‘We literally did the government’s homework for them’

Burrier said one example of “successful shots fired” in Canada was how the company lobbied the federal government around the Impact Assessment Act, legislation that gives decision-makers the means to consider environmental impacts when approving or rejecting major industrial development projects. The government is amending the act after the Supreme Court of Canada found it to be unconstitutional last fall, but Burrier suggested TC Energy was behind the government’s openness to changes that benefit industry.

“As many on this call will remember, early last year the Canadian government had two sentences in their proposal saying that they wanted to make improvements on its permitting process,” he said in the recording. “We used that as our opening. We produced for government a deliberate, thoughtful, 20-plus-page paper with recommendations.”

He explained TC Energy staffers based in the U.S. capital developed a case study for Canadian government officials that dissected how Germany “built three LNG import terminals in less than a year” by enacting special legislation.

“We literally did the government’s homework for them,” he added.

Dixie Quintanilla, a spokesperson with the Impact Assessment Agency, said the federal government met with numerous stakeholders, including TC Energy, as part of the process to develop proposed amendments.

She said the agency “did not receive any submissions from TC Energy on amendments to the Impact Assessment Act.”

When asked by The Narwhal about the claims, federal Environment Minister Steven Guilbeault said Burrier’s statement is “an outrageous claim and it’s so preposterous.” At an interview during a conference organized by the Toronto Region Board of Trade on June 27, Guilbeault said TC Energy was one of 30 stakeholders and 60 Indigenous organizations consulted over the changes and that he didn’t believe the company had put its thoughts in writing.

A spokesperson said the minister’s office “relied on the best available science and on the unbiased, high-quality advice of the Impact Assessment Agency” for amendments to the legislation.

The Supreme Court ruling was “the only reason we made changes,” Guilbeault said. “To think that I would take my orders from a company on something like that? I think it’s someone who is grossly overestimating their importance and the role they played … It’s ridiculous.”

Burrier also said he and his colleagues helped with efforts to weaken a “climate scheme that British Columbia was advancing.”

“I won’t bore you with the details here because it does get pretty technical but we helped … the team in B.C. with assessing the proposals and providing recommendations and, lo and behold, it worked,” he said. “The final recommendations came out and in the next few years we’ll see savings of hundreds of millions of dollars in compliance costs and it factors up to billions if you look out at 25 years from now.”

It appears he was referring to provincial regulations that restrict emissions from the oil and gas sector. On another leaked recording, a TC Energy executive who resigned after The Narwhal began its reporting said the company was successful in excluding “midstream” infrastructure — namely, pipelines — from the new rules.

A spokesperson with the Office of the Premier in B.C. did not directly respond to the claim, saying only that the premier maintains a “clear and persistent commitment to B.C.’s climate plan,” which includes an emissions cap for the oil and gas industry.

— With files from Fatima Syed

Travis McCracken 2024-06-25 Travis McCracken 2024-06-25

Small drones will soon lose combat advantage, French Army chief says

By Rudy Ruitenberg | https://www.defensenews.com/global/europe/2024/06/19/small-drones-will-soon-lose-combat-advantage-french-army-chief-says/

Wednesday, Jun 19, 2024

French Army Chief of Staff Gen. Pierre Schill inspecting a Rapid Eagle anti-drone system at the Eurosatory defense show in Paris on June 19, 2024 (RUDY RUITENBERG/DEFENSE NEWS)

PARIS — The advantage now enjoyed by small aerial drones on battlefields including in Ukraine is but “a moment in history,” French Army Chief of Staff Gen. Pierre Schill said at the Eurosatory defense show in Paris.

While anti-drone systems are lagging and “leave the sky open to things that are cobbled together but which are extremely fragile,” countermeasures are being developed, Schill told reporters during a tour of the French Army stand at the show June 19. Already today, 75% of drones on the battlefield in Ukraine are lost to electronic warfare, the general said.

”The life of impunity of small, very simple drones over the battlefield is a snapshot in time,” Schill said. “Right now it’s being exploited, that’s clear, and we have to protect ourselves. Today, the sword, in the sense of the aerial drone, is powerful, more powerful than the shield. The shield is going to grow.”

This year’s edition of Eurosatory featured dozens of anti-drone systems, including shotguns, cannons and missiles, while companies including Safran, Thales and Hensoldt presented soft-kill solutions to eliminate drones by electronic means. Schill said vehicles in France’s Scorpion collaborative combat program will all be anti-drone systems in two years time, linking their detection capability with turrets that can fire a missile or a 40mm airburst grenade.

First-person view drones currently carry out about 80% of the destruction on the front line in Ukraine, when eight months ago those systems weren’t present, according to Schill. The general said that situation won’t exist 10 years from now, and the question could be asked whether that might already end in one or two years. Schill cited the example of the Bayraktar drone, “the king of the war” at the start of the conflict in Ukraine but no longer being used because it’s too easy to scramble.

The general said he doesn’t consider that the war in Ukraine calls into question the French choice of a maneuvering army built around medium armor, with a focus on speed and mobility. The vehicles that the Army is introducing as part of the Scorpion program -- the Griffon, Serval and Jaguar – can be equipped with either active or passive protection, even if a strong emphasis of mine protection means they’re “quite massive.”

Griffons, Servals

The French Army is receiving around 120 Griffons and 120 Servals every year as part of Scorpion, as well as more than 20 Jaguars. The vehicles are equipped with “extremely powerful” information systems, and a vehicle such as the Griffon may contain more lines of code than a Rafale fighter jet, according to Schill.

Vehicles developed before the Scorpion program, such as the Leclerc main battle tank, are being reconfigured to become part of the collaborative combat system, which for example allows a target detected by one vehicle to be attacked by another. Scorpion was “extremely ambitious,” works, and has met expectations, according to Schill.

“Everything we had planned is perfectly in place, but it’s just a question of cost effectiveness on certain capabilities,” the general said.Something not considered five years ago is the rapid development of microprocessors, which means the gathered data can now be analyzed within the vehicle rather than externally. In combination with on-board artificial intelligence, that will allow for capabilities such as immediate threat detection, including of drones.

When looking to draw lessons from Ukraine, there needs to be a distinction between what is situational and related the type of terrain and battles being fought, and what is structural, the general said. The war in eastern Europe doesn’t mean the issues of the past 30 years around risk and crisis management will disappear. “We must remain a versatile army.”

The French choice has been to not separate the army into distinct parts suited for different theaters, for example an intervention army that is agile and mobile and a mechanized armor army prepared to fight a war like the one in Ukraine today, with “perhaps more rugged, lowered vehicles, but which, when they hit a mine will kill crews.”

Schill said he wants to preserve the “warrior aspect” of the French army, in which every soldier is aware they can be deployed in operation, rather than a soldier in a territorial defense army “who will never do anything.”

The pace of military drone development means that Army can’t commit to large buying programs, because an acquired capability can become obsolete in five months, according to the general. Schill said today’s drones fly better than those two or three years ago, with more computing power onboard that is capable of terrain-based navigation or switching frequencies to escape jamming.

Drones can’t be compared to 155mm shells, which can be stocked and will remain relevant in 10 years time, and the Army needs to find “the right system in this fast-moving world of new technology,” Schill said. The challenge is creating an industrial model that can produce in mass if necessary, and sufficiently standardized.

Future buying of electronic gear such as drones but also small radios and smart phones may be done in batches to allow for technology evolution, for example renewing equipment at the brigade level rather than multiple-year programs to equip the entire Army with a new piece of equipment, Schill said.

‘Just not possible’

The general also commented on the future French-German Main Ground Combat System, which will consist of several vehicles, some of them manned and others automated, combining anti-drone weapons, close-defense anti-aircraft capabilities, missiles and a canon. Putting all of that on a single tank would create a vehicle weighing 80 metric tons, which “is just not possible.”

Development of the system is going to 10 to 15 years because the land-based robotics are “not completely mature yet,” according to Schill.Schill said he doesn’t know whether the right main gun for the future tank system will be 120mm, 130mm or 140mm, saying that will depend on issues such as stealth and mobility requirements, as well as what the gun bore would add in terms of penetration. KNDS, which is involved in the MGCS program, presented a gun that can swap its barrel to fire either 120mm or 140mm shells.

The French Leclerc tank probably won’t get a second upgrade beyond the current XLR version being rolled out, according to the general. He said the French-German agreement is for the next-generation system in 2040, making the Leclerc question a secondary issue.

It’ll be in France’s interest to piggyback on any capability additions made by the United Arab Emirates, another Leclerc user, between now and 2040 as a way to finance intermediate innovations, Schill said. The introduction of the MGCS won’t immediately mean the end of the Leclerc, which the general expects to be in service in the French Army until 2045.

About Rudy Ruitenberg

Rudy Ruitenberg is a Europe correspondent for Defense News. He started his career at Bloomberg News and has experience reporting on technology, commodity markets and politics.

Travis McCracken 2024-06-13 Travis McCracken 2024-06-13

The Architect: Dave Weagle suspension revolution

FORWARD By Travis McCracken

In the spirit of relentless pursuit and innovation, this article draws inspiration from the journey of Dave Weagle, a master of mechanical engineering and mountain biking. His story teaches us that constraints are not obstacles but catalysts for creativity and success. In the following article, you'll discover how embracing your limitations can lead to groundbreaking achievements and new paths to success.

FREEHUB ARTICLE

Dave Weagle has had a very large roll in the development of mountain bike suspension. From the DW-link and split pivot to the DELTA system, it's safe to say mountain bikes would be very different if it weren't for Weagle's love of F1 racing and the fact that he didn't have space for a motorcycle.

Words by Brion O'Connor | https://freehub.com/articles/the-architect

Mountain bikers should thank their lucky stars that suspension guru Dave Weagle didn’t have a bigger apartment.

Weagle grew up in central Massachusetts, an all-around athlete who played hockey, basketball and baseball, and rode motocross. Plenty of motocross. In the mid-1990s, after high school, he moved east to Boston, and the Wentworth Institute of Technology, to pursue a mechanical engineering degree and his dreams of working for a Formula 1 racing team.

“I had basically tailored my schooling toward that,” Weagle says. “But when it came time to pull the trigger, I had met my now-wife, and decided I really didn’t want to move to the UK to pursue F1 racing. I had done my due diligence, and it really didn’t seem like the right move for me.”

Instead, in 1998 the newly minted graduate went to work for Draper Laboratory, a contractor for the United States Department of Defense. Living in the Boston area, Weagle still had the itch for some throttle twisting.

But his apartment had space limitations. “I would have never, ever, ever bought a mountain bike,” he says. “I would have continued to ride motocross. But I couldn’t fit a motocross bike in my apartment.

“All of my buddies had mountain bikes, and they were having fun, riding in Lynn Woods, so I took a shot. I went out with them a couple of times, and that was pretty much it.”

Weagle’s inquisitive, analytical mind shifted gears—literally.

“As I got into mountain biking a little further, I started looking at these bikes and saying ‘What the heck is going on with these things?’” he says. “I had the suspension background, I had the athletic background, and I really melded the two together. And started thinking about what the heck is this thing actually doing?

“It’s crazy, but nobody had actually published any kind of technical analysis of how chain-driven wheel suspension actually functions. It’s insane to think that in the 100 years of motorcycles, no one had actually taken the time to do it. But if you think about motorcycles, you hit the gas, and it really doesn’t matter.”

Motorcycles simply evolved. “They would just move things around until things worked, and it was all good,” Weagle says. Being human-powered, mountain bikes were a different animal—or, more accurately, machine—altogether.

Suspension is only ever one part of the entire machine. Weagle does a little custom fabrication on one of his many other projects.

Weagle says he had an idea of what he was feeling while riding, but wanted to quantify those sensations. One, for example, is what he calls the “language of feel,” which he wanted to define mathematically. It was a sensation he believes first developed in both his early riding and his activities outside of biking.

“I’ve always attributed the fact that I have a propensity for feel, or maybe a finer-tuned sense than most people, to the fact that my main sport growing up was playing hockey,” Weagle says. “I was on blades my whole life. I don’t know if there’s any truth to that, but that’s what I’ve always imagined.”

Weagle built a language for the math, and soon wrote a paper on how “chain-driven suspension actually reacts to acceleration forces.” Now he just had to decide what to do with it.

Weagle continued to ride, and race, with a distinct preference for downhilling. While he’s learned (reluctantly, he says) to pedal over the years, he still prefers spending his day using another machine—a chairlift—over grinding out long climbs.

“I would have never had success in mountain biking if I wasn’t able to ride the bike, and, at one point, ride at a reasonably high level.”

“I was pretty notorious in the NORBA pits for suspension tuning and helping people sort through their own bikes,” Weagle says. “Suspension tuning back in the day was quite a bit more rudimentary than it is now.”

Weagle specifically targeted the dampers that were popular at the time, which he says “didn’t function all that well. So just making them work at all was really, really important.”

He began tinkering with existing suspension platforms and building his own bikes. Together with some friends, Weagle launched Evil bikes in 1999, followed by e*thirteen drivetrain components in 2002. But his work at NORBA races was also turning heads.

“You had bikes like Intense that were amazing bikes for the time, but they had a lot of adjustments,” he says. “And only a couple of the adjustments were functional in any real way. Understanding how they functioned, why they functioned, what the limitations of the existing dampers were, and helping riders through that, I got myself a reputation in the pits.”

Dave Weagle’s workspace is as much a shop as it is a museum. Years, if not decades, of mountain bike history dangle from the ceiling, and past, present and future projects are scattered throughout. For Weagle, the best design is the next one.

A good workshop has as many tools as it does projects. Being able to create one-off components and parts allows Weagle to fine tune his designs—and make just about anything.

Those experiences and the subsequent reputation he earned led to an offer to develop a product line for Iron Horse, which had started to heavily invest in its mountain bike department. Weagle said he took the suspension methodology he had developed and eventually created a “kind of idealized system that became [the] DW-link.” The title came from his nickname at the time, and was officially coined by a friend.

This groundbreaking suspension design marked a watershed moment in mountain biking. From a pure downhilling perspective, it was a sort of mechanical revolution akin to the Repack pioneers in the 1970s, bombing down Mount Tamalpais in California’s Marin County aboard their “clunkers” and “ballooner” bikes: It defined what was possible, and set the standard for what was to come.

The terminology is a bit intimidating, but the design is centered on the concept that “varying anti-squat can be used to counteract the negative effects of load transfer on a bicycle suspension,” Weagle says. “I didn’t invent anti-squat. That’s just a known phenomenon in vehicle suspension. Your car has that. Your city bus has that.”

Essentially, “anti-squat” helps suppress natural weight transfer under acceleration, which helps the rider to keep the bike’s wheels in contact with the ground while providing enough suspension to keep the rider’s backside in the saddle, instead of acting like a catapult.

Like many landmark inventions, the DW-link and Weagle’s work with those temperamental dampers has withstood the test of time.

“If you go back and look at pre-2003 bikes, and post-2003, the direction [of suspension design] has moved a lot closer to what I was doing early on and farther away from any other design,” he says. “There’s really no other design. Every design has moved this way.

“That’s made bikes better for everybody. It’s made suspension more compliant.”

Weagle left Draper Labs in 2003. “Eventually, I saw a gun mounted on a robot that I had designed, and decided that perhaps military engineering wasn’t for me,” he says.

Free to do what he wanted, he then committed himself full time to bike and bike suspension design. And Weagle has never once sat on his laurels.

“In terms of suspension design, where we were 10 years ago, the designs that I put out there, that I worked on, were definitely [utility] knife-type products,” Weagle says. “You could use them for anything. I would say today, in 2016, nearly every single product that is sold has gone in the direction of what I was doing in 2005 and 2006.”

In the past 16 years, he has created a number of suspension designs, led by several iterations of the DW-link (on Iron Horse, Pivot, Ibis and Turner bikes), the DELTA system found on Evil bikes, and the Split Pivot (on Devinci and Salsa bikes). The goal, Weagle says, has always been to help the bike vanish underneath the rider.

“For me, [suspension design] is more about the people,” he says. “My biggest goal, my biggest achievement, is when the product really disappears. It’s just gone. It’s totally transparent.”

Asked what his specific goals are when designing a bike or a suspension system, Weagle says, “However the rider really wants it.”

“I can’t necessarily prescribe that, unless we’re talking about a race bike for a specific athlete, in which case that specific athlete has areas where they’re better and some areas where they’re struggling, so we’ll work specifically with that,” he says. “A downhill bike is a downhill bike, and a cross-country bike is a cross-country bike, just from a pure geometry standpoint, and a suspension travel standpoint.

“There are divisions there, but, by and large, trail bikes today, it’s really about preference,” Weagle says. “You want to ride a longer travel bike, that’s fine. You want to ride a shorter travel bike, that’s fine too. It’s really nothing wrong with either.”

From an idea to a prototype, a lot of things can come to life in a shop with the right tools. Dave Weagle works in the virtual before going to the the physical.

That’s why Weagle is comfortable working with numerous clients, since every bike manufacturer has a slightly different type of ride in mind.

“My goal when consulting partners is to help them build their best possible product,” he says. “Some lines, like the Evil line, I get to do from the ground up. I get to choose the geometry, I get to choose what the product line looks like, I can choose the suspension. I do everything, essentially. Obviously, there are other people working on the project, but I’m the architect of the line.”

Regardless of the company he’s working for, “my job is to coach them on geometry and do all the suspension design for them,” Weagle says.

He also emphasizes that it’s important to respect the specific vision of every company he consults with, and does his best to meet those ideals, not his own. “My goal, from a field standpoint, is to understand who the people behind the companies are, how to make that bike fit with who they are,” he says.

“An Ibis and a Pivot do not ride the same,” Weagle says. “The guys behind the companies are different people, and I think a little bit of division is nice.”

Today, Weagle has set up shop in Martha’s Vineyard, a well-known tourist retreat just off the southern arm of Massachusetts’ Cape Cod where he shares a home with his wife, Linley. The island will never be considered a mountain biking mecca, much like Moab or British Columbia’s North Shore. But that doesn’t bother him.

“My wife grew up here, and that’s where we got married,” he says. “And I like being married. So I’m on Martha’s Vineyard.”

The home office doesn’t hinder his vision. A far cry from that original, cramped apartment, the Weagle workshop is sort of a museum, with more than two-dozen bikes and frames hanging from the walls. Asked if he has a favorite design, Weagle replies without hesitation: “The next one.”

“I’m trying to live more in the present,” he says. “I’ve always enjoyed riding the bikes of the time, or the ones slightly ahead of their time.

“Still, I never really choose favorites. There’s always something better. By the time somebody sees something that I’ve worked on, I’ve already dissected it and I’m completely sick of it. I’ve been looking at it for two-and-a-half years, and probably just done with it.”

Weagle’s engineering interest originated with Formula 1 cars but found a home in mountain bikes after his years of racing motocross. All vehicles have suspension of sorts, and it was just up to Weagle to determine how to best to use it while racing downhill.

However, Weagle is guarded when it comes to future projects, regularly answering with a flat “Can’t talk about it” when asked. That’s understandable, given how many of his designs, from suspension systems to thermoplastic bash guards, have been “borrowed” by other manufacturers over the years.

“If I had a nickel for everyone who told me I was a complete dumbass for trying to build a plastic bash guard, I’d be retired,” he says. “But you can’t buy a metal bash guard anymore.”

Weagle’s work continues to fascinate and invigorate him, especially with the advent and popularization of 29- and 27.5-inch wheels, which offer new dynamics and new challenges. And his continued involvement in the industry, again, is a blessing for mountain bikers everywhere.

“What really excites me are the mechanical problems,” he says. “That’s what I really enjoy—solving difficult challenges. That’s what drives me.”

Weagle readily admits his attitude toward mountain biking has undergone a 180-degree change since he begrudgingly saddled up along with his buddies on the technical trails of Lynn Woods on Boston’s North Shore two decades ago.

“I love the fact that I can work in mountain biking. I love the fact that my work makes people’s lives better, makes people happier,” Weagle says. “People go through their lives dealing with some crappy job, or whatever. Everyone’s got something going on. We all have things personally, or professionally, making us crazy.

“I know that if I go out on my bike, that stuff tends to disappear,” he says. “I’ve heard that time and time again from other riders. Getting out on the trails is like their church.”

Travis McCracken 2024-06-05 Travis McCracken 2024-06-05

Researchers plan to retract landmark Alzheimer’s paper containing doctored images

I’m fine, just tired

Senior author acknowledges manipulated figures in study tying a form of amyloid protein to memory impairment

4 JUN 2024
3:10 PM ET
By Charles PILLER
Science.org

Karen Ashe of the University of Minnesota Twin Cities stands by the conclusions of her team’s 2006 paper.

Authors of a landmark Alzheimer’s disease research paper published in Nature in 2006 have agreed to retract the study in response to allegations of image manipulation. University of Minnesota (UMN) Twin Cities neuroscientist Karen Ashe, the paper’s senior author, acknowledged in a post on the journal discussion site PubPeer that the paper contains doctored images. The study has been cited nearly 2500 times, and would be the most cited paper ever to be retracted, according to Retraction Watch data.

“Although I had no knowledge of any image manipulations in the published paper until it was brought to my attention two years ago,” Ashe wrote on PubPeer, “it is clear that several of the figures in Lesné et al. (2006) have been manipulated … for which I as the senior and corresponding author take ultimate responsibility.”

After initially arguing the paper’s problems could be addressed with a correction, Ashe said in another post last week that all of the authors had agreed to a retraction—with the exception of its first author, UMN neuro- scientist Sylvain Lesné, a protégé of Ashe’s who was the focus of a 2022 investigation by Science. A Nature spokesperson would not comment on the journal’s plans.

“It’s unfortunate that it has taken  2 years to make the decision to retract,” says Donna Wilcock, an Indiana University neuroscientist and editor of the journal Alzheimer’s & Dementia. “The evidence of manipulation was overwhelming.”

The 2006 paper suggested an amyloid beta (Aβ) protein called Aβ*56 could cause Alzheimer’s. Aβ proteins have long been linked to the disease. The authors reported that Aβ*56 was present in mice genetically engineered to develop an Alzheimer’s-like condition, and that it built up in step with their cognitive decline. The team also reported memory deficits in rats injected with Aβ*56.

For years researchers had tried to improve Alzheimer’s outcomes by stripping amyloid proteins from the brain, but the experimental drugs all failed. Aβ*56 seemed to offer a more specific and promising therapeutic target, and many embraced the finding. Funding for related work rose sharply.

But the Science investigation revealed evidence that the Nature paper and numerous others co-authored by Lesné, some listing Ashe as senior author, appeared to use manipulated data. After the story was published, leading scientists who had cited the paper to support their own experiments questioned whether Aβ*56 could be reliably detected and purified as described by Lesné and Ashe—or even existed. Some said the problems in that paper and others supported fresh doubts about the dominant hypothesis that amyloid drives Alzheimer’s. Others maintained that the hypothesis remains viable.

That debate has continued amid the approval of the antiamyloid drug Leqembi, which modestly slows cognitive decline but carries risks of serious or even fatal brain swelling or bleeding.

Lesné, who did not reply to requests for comment, remains a UMN professor and receives National Institutes of Health funding. The university has been investigating his work since June 2022. A spokesperson says UMN recently told Natureit had reviewed two images in question, and “has closed this review with no findings of research misconduct pertaining to these figures.” The statement did not reference several other questioned figures in the same paper. UMN did not comment on whether it had reached conclusions about other Lesné papers with apparently doctored images.

“How is manipulating figures not misconduct?” asks Elisabeth Bik, a scientific integrity consultant who validated whistleblower findings about the paper for Science’s investigation. Such cases should be investigated by independent bodies, she says, not the accused scientists’ universities, which face financial and reputational conflicts of interest.

Ashe’s most recent PubPeer post maintains that “the manipulations did not change the conclusions of the experiments.” In a recent paper in iScience, she and colleagues claim to confirm the findings of the 2006 paper. “I continue to believe that Aβ*56 could play an important role in Alzheimer’s disease and targeting its removal could lead to significant clinical benefits,” she wrote on PubPeer.

In an email to Science, Ashe said Nature“declined to publish” a requested correction to the 2006 paper, making retraction “the only other option available to us.” (Naturewould not comment on her account.)

“We all share the same values—preserving the integrity of the scientific record—but express them differently,” Ashe added.

Wilcock calls Ashe’s claims that her new paper replicated the Nature findings “an overstatement.” And Vanderbilt University neuroscientist Matthew Schrag, who works on scientific integrity issues independent of his employer and discovered most of the problems in Lesné’s work, disputed Ashe’s conclusions about the iScience paper in detailed comments on PubPeer. But he calls Ashe’s decision to retract “an important step in the right direction” for a field plagued with research integrity issues. “It’s taken a while, but she has taken a stand for integrity.”

Other journals that published suspect papers by Lesné have been waiting for UMN to conclude its investigation. John Foley, editor of Science Signaling, which published two of the papers, says UMN recently told him it will soon have more to say about its review.

This story was supported by the Science Fund for Investigative Reporting.

Travis McCracken 2024-05-20 Travis McCracken 2024-05-20

Victims of Iranian regime celebrate the death of President Raisi

Daily Mail

Iran's Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei has declared the nation will observe five days of mourning following the death of President Ebrahim Raisi in a devastating helicopter crash in the mountainous northwest of the country yesterday. But there are plenty of Iranians who are instead celebrating the unexpected death of the president, who has earned a reputation as a brutal, hardline executor of Khamenei's will.

A slew of other videos shared to social media appeared to show people setting off fireworks in the streets of Tehran in celebration - though these clips are yet to be verified. Raisi, who became president of Iran in 2021, was widely seen as a vassal for the regime and a yes man to Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei. He stormed to the presidency with a huge majority following the 2021 elections - but less than half of Iran's electorate turned out to vote after many more moderate candidates were barred from running.

The daughters of Minoo Majidi - a 62-year-old Iranian woman who was one of hundreds of people shot dead by security services during the nationwide fallout following the death of Mahsa Amini in September 2022 - shared a video to social media raising a glass to the president's demise. That clip was followed swiftly by two more Iranian women, Mersedeh Shahinkar and Sima Moradbeigi, dancing and smiling in response to the news Raisi's helicopter had plunged into the mountainside. Shahinkar was blinded by the security forces' brutality amid the 2022 protests, while Moradbeigi lost the use of one of her arms after an armed guard blasted her elbow apart from point-blank range.

As a young student at a religious seminary in the holy city of Qom, Raisi took part in protests against the Western-backed Shah in the 1979 revolution. His contacts with religious leaders in Qom made him a trusted figure in the judiciary, and he became Iran's deputy prosecutor aged just 25. Raisi quickly worked his way to the top - and in doing so earned himself the moniker 'the Butcher of Tehran'.

As deputy prosecutor and subsequently chief prosecutor, Raisi stood on the so-called 'death committee' - a group of four judges who presided over tribunals in 1988 that were assembled to 're-try' the regime's political prisoners. Thousands of these prisoners were ruthlessly executed and dumped in unmarked graves. The exact number of deaths is not known but rights groups estimate roughly 5,000 people were killed following Raisi's brutal judgement.

Victims of Iranian regime celebrate the death of President Raisi

Not only was Raisi loyal to the Republic and its Supreme Leader Ruhollah Khomeini, but throughout the 1980s he had developed a close relationship with the then-president of Iran, Ali Khamenei. Khamenei went onto become Iran's Supreme Leader following the death of Khomeini in 1989, and is undoubtedly responsible for charting Raisi's path to the presidency in 2021 . Following Raisi's election, his hardline position became yet more evident. In 2022, he ordered tighter enforcement of Iran's 'hijab and chastity law' restricting women's dress and behaviour.

It was under these orders that 22-year-old Mahsa Amini was detained in September 2022 by Iran's 'morality police' for wearing 'improper' hijab and died three days later in hospital, sparking mass unrest. The resulting months of nationwide protests presented one of the gravest challenges to Iran's clerical rulers since the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Hundreds of people were killed, according to rights groups, including dozens of security personnel who were part of a fierce crackdown on the demonstrators. 'Acts of chaos are unacceptable,' the president insisted. Mrs. Maryam Rajavi, President-elect of the National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI), said Raisi's death represented a 'monumental strategic blow to the mullahs' Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei and the entire regime', adding his death could spur people to rebel against the government.

Mrs. Rajavi added: The curse of mothers and those seeking justice for the executed, along with the damnation of the Iranian people and history, mark the legacy of Ebrahim Raisi, the notorious perpetrator of the 1988 massacre of political prisoners.' Iranian authorities first raised the alarm on Sunday afternoon when they lost contact with Raisi's helicopter as it flew through a fog-shrouded mountain area of the Jolfa region of East Azerbaijan province. Raisi had earlier met Azerbaijan's President Ilham Aliyev on their common border to inaugurate a dam project.

On the return trip, only two of the three helicopters in his convoy landed in the city of Tabriz, setting off a massive search and rescue effort, with multiple foreign governments soon offering help. Interior Minister Ahmad Vahidi at first spoke of a 'hard landing' and urged citizens to ignore hostile foreign media channels and get their information 'only from state television'. Army personnel, Revolutionary Guards and police officers joined the search as Red Crescent teams walked up a hill in the fog and rain as rows of emergency services vehicles waited nearby. Muslim faithful across the majority Shiite nation started to pray for those missing, including in mosques in Raisi's hometown, the shrine city of Mashhad.

As the sun rose on Monday, rescue crews said they had located the destroyed aircraft with nine people on board. State television channel IRIB reported online that the helicopter had 'hit a mountain and disintegrated' on impact. Iran's Red Crescent chief Pirhossein Koolivand confirmed that its staff were 'transferring the bodies of the martyrs to Tabriz' and that 'the search operations have come to an end'. Some Iranians took to the streets to pray for Raisi overnight following news his chopper had crashed. 'We were very sad when we learnt the news,' said one Tehran resident, 63-year-old retiree Nabi Karam. 'Our president was a very good leader, may God bless him.'

Travis McCracken 2024-05-14 Travis McCracken 2024-05-14

Secret Hamas Files Show How It Spied on Everyday Palestinians

Hamas monitored political activity, online posts, and apparently even love lives. Palestinians were stuck between an Israeli blockade and a repressive security force.

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A rally in support of Hamas in Gaza City in 2022. A secret police force overseen by Hamas’s leader in the enclave utilizes an extensive network of informants.Credit...Fatima Shbair/Associated Press

By Adam Rasgon and Ronen Bergman

Adam Rasgon reported from Jerusalem, and Ronen Bergman from Tel Aviv.

May 13, 2024

The Hamas leader Yahya Sinwar has for years overseen a secret police force in Gaza that conducted surveillance on everyday Palestinians and built files on young people, journalists and those who questioned the government, according to intelligence officials and a trove of internal documents reviewed by The New York Times.

The unit, known as the General Security Service, relied on a network of Gaza informants, some of whom reported their own neighbors to the police. People landed in security files for attending protests or publicly criticizing Hamas. In some cases, the records suggest that the authorities followed people to determine if they were carrying on romantic relationships outside marriage.

Hamas has long run an oppressive system of governance in Gaza, and many Palestinians there know that security officials watch them closely. But a 62-slide presentation on the activities of the General Security Service, delivered only weeks before the Oct. 7 attack on Israel, reveals the degree to which the largely unknown unit penetrated the lives of Palestinians.

The documents show that Hamas leaders, despite claiming to represent the people of Gaza, would not tolerate even a whiff of dissent. Security officials trailed journalists and people they suspected of immoral behavior. Agents got criticism removed from social media and discussed ways to defame political adversaries. Political protests were viewed as threats to be undermined.

Everyday Gazans were stuck — behind the wall of Israel’s crippling blockade and under the thumb and constant watch of a security force. That dilemma continues today, with the added threat of Israeli ground troops and airstrikes.

“We’re facing bombardment by the occupation and thuggery by the local authorities,” Ehab Fasfous, a journalist in the Gaza Strip who appeared in the files of the General Security Service, said in a phone interview from Gaza.

Mr. Fasfous, 51, is labeled in one report as among “the major haters of the Hamas movement.”

The documents were provided to The Times by officials in Israel’s military intelligence directorate, who said they had been seized in raids in Gaza.

Reporters then interviewed people who were named in the files. Those people recounted key events, confirmed biographical information and, in Mr. Fasfous’s case, described interactions with the authorities that aligned with the secret files. The documents reviewed by The Times include seven intelligence files ranging from October 2016 to August 2023. The military intelligence directorate said it was aware of files containing information on at least 10,000 Palestinians in Gaza.

The General Security Service is formally part of the Hamas political party but functions like part of the government. One Palestinian individual familiar with the inner workings of Hamas, who spoke on the condition of anonymity because of the sensitivity of the matter, confirmed that the service was one of three powerful internal security bodies in Gaza. The others were Military Intelligence, which typically focuses on Israel, and the Internal Security Service, an arm of the Interior Ministry.

Basem Naim, a spokesman for Hamas, said the people responsible for the General Security Service were unreachable during the war.

With monthly expenses of $120,000 before the war with Israel, the unit comprised 856 people, records show. Of those, more than 160 were paid to spread Hamas propaganda and launch online attacks against opponents at home and abroad. The status of the unit today is unknown because Israel has dealt a significant blow to Hamas’s military and governing abilities.

The Israeli intelligence authorities believe that Mr. Sinwar directly oversaw the General Security Service, according to three Israeli intelligence officials, who spoke on the condition of anonymity because they were not authorized to discuss the matter publicly. They said the slide show was prepared for Mr. Sinwar personally, though they did not say how they knew that.

The presentation said that the General Security Service works to protect Hamas’s people, property and information, and to support its leadership’s decision-making.

Some slides focused on the personal security of Hamas leaders. Others discussed ways to stamp out protests, including the “We Want to Live” demonstrations last year that criticized power shortages and the cost of living. Security officials also tracked operatives from Palestinian Islamic Jihad, an ideologically aligned militant group that often partners with Hamas.

Some tactics, like amplifying Hamas’s own message, appeared to be routine politicking. In other instances, officials suggested using intelligence to undermine opponents and distort their reputations, though the files were vague about how that was to be done.

“Undertaking a number of offensive and defensive media campaigns to confuse and influence adversaries by using private and exclusive information,” the document read.

Updated

May 14, 2024, 12:47 p.m. ET5 hours ago

5 hours ago

Security officers stopped Mr. Fasfous on his way to a protest last August, seized his phone and ordered him to leave, a report says. Mr. Fasfous confirmed that two plainclothes officers had approached him. The authorities searched his recent calls, and wrote that he was communicating with “suspicious people” in Israel.

“We advise that closing in on him is necessary because he’s a negative person who is full of hatred, and only brings forth the Strip’s shortcomings,” the document said.

The documents discussed ways to stamp out protests last year over power outages and difficult living conditions.Credit...Associated Press

The most frustrating thing, Mr. Fasfous said, was that the officers used his phone to send flirtatious messages to a colleague. “They wanted to pin a moral violation on me,” he said.

The report does not include that detail but does describe ways to “deal with” Mr. Fasfous. “Defame him,” the report said.

“If you’re not with them, you become an atheist, an infidel and a sinner,” Mr. Fasfous said. He acknowledged supporting protests and criticizing Hamas online, but said the people he was in touch with in Israel were Palestinians who owned food and clothing companies. He said he helped run their social media accounts.

The General Security Service’s goals are similar to those of security services in countries like Syria that have used secret units to quell dissent. The files of the General Security Service, though, mention tactics like censorship, intimidation and surveillance rather than physical violence.

“This General Security Service is just like the Stasi of East Germany,” said Michael Milshtein, a former Israeli military intelligence officer specializing in Palestinian affairs. “You always have an eye on the street.”

Yahya Sinwar, the leader of Hamas in Gaza, last year at a rally in Gaza City.Credit...Samar Abu Elouf for The New York Times

Palestinians in Gaza live in fear and hesitate to express dissent, analysts said.

“There are a lot of people practicing self-censorship,” said Mkhaimar Abusada, a professor of political science from Gaza City. “They just don’t want problems with the Hamas government.”

That view clashes with the most strident comments of Israel’s leaders, like President Isaac Herzog, who blamed Gazans for not toppling Hamas before the Oct. 7 attacks.

“There’s an entire nation that is responsible,” he said. “This rhetoric about civilians were not aware, not involved, it’s absolutely not true. They could have risen up.”

The General Security Service, the files show, also tried to enforce a conservative social order.

In December 2017, for example, the authorities investigated a tip that a woman was acting immorally with a man who owned a clothing shop. A security report noted that she visited the shop for an hour on one day, then more than two hours the next. The report presented no evidence of wrongdoing, but proposed that “relevant parties” address the matter.

An October 2016 report described young men and women performing unspecified “immoral acts” at a Palestine Liberation Organization office in Khan Younis at night. Hamas sees the Palestine Liberation Organization as a compromised entity, whose leader too often favors Israeli interests. The report offered no evidence of misdeeds but recommended summoning a man who claimed to be in possession of videos and pictures.

The files also show that Hamas was suspicious of foreign organizations and journalists.

Fishermen in the Port of Gaza in 2022. Even though many of the reports contain nothing more than notes on daily lives of Gazans, many people in the strip “think four times before doing any small thing,” said Michael Milshtein, a former Israeli intelligence officer specializing in Palestinian affairs.Credit...Samar Abu Elouf for The New York Times

When Monique van Hoogstraten, a Dutch reporter, visited a protest encampment along the border with Israel in April 2018, the authorities noted the most banal of details. They noted the make and model of her car and her license plate number. They said she took pictures of children and tried to interview an elderly woman. Ms. van Hoogstraten confirmed the reporting trip in an interview with The Times.

The file recommended further “reconnaissance” on journalists.

None of the files reviewed by The Times were dated after the start of the war. But Mr. Fasfous said the government remained interested in him.

Early in the war, he said he took images of security forces hitting people who fought over spots in line outside a bakery. The authorities confiscated his camera.

Mr. Fasfous complained to a government official in Khan Younis, who told him to stop reporting and “destabilizing the internal front,” Mr. Fasfous recalled.

“I told him I was reporting on the truth and that the truth won’t hurt him, but that fell on deaf ears,” he said. “We can’t have a life here as long as these criminals remain in control.”

Adam Rasgon reports from Israel for The Times's Jerusalem bureau. More about Adam Rasgon

Ronen Bergman is a staff writer for The New York Times Magazine, based in Tel Aviv. His latest book is “Rise and Kill First: The Secret History of Israel’s Targeted Assassinations,” published by Random House. More about Ronen Bergman

A version of this article appears in print on May 14, 2024, Section A, Page 1 of the New York edition with the headline: Secret Files Show Hamas Spying on Its People. Order Reprints | Today’s Paper | Subscribe

H1: Hamas monitored political activity, online posts, and apparently even love lives. Palestinians were stuck between an Israeli blockade and a repressive security force.

Travis McCracken 2024-03-28 Travis McCracken 2024-03-28

Civil Disobedience by Henry David Thoreau

“Civil Disobedience”

originated as a Concord Lyceum lecture delivered on January 26, 1848. It was published as “Resistance to Civil Government,” in May of 1849, in Elizabeth Peabody’s Aesthetic Papers, a short-lived periodical that never managed a second issue. The modern title comes from A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-Slavery and Reform Papers, an 1866 collection of Thoreau’s work. It’s not known if Thoreau ever used the term “civil disobedience.”

While Walden can be applied to almost anyone’s life, “Civil Disobedience” is like a venerated architectural landmark: it is preserved and admired, and sometimes visited, but for most of us there are not many occasions when it can actually be used. Still, although seldom mentioned without references to Gandhi and King, “Civil Disobedience” has more history than many suspect. In the 1940’s it was read by the Danish resistance, in the 1950’s it was cherished by those who opposed McCarthyism, in the 1960’s it was influential in the struggle against South African apartheid, and in the 1970’s it was discovered by a new generation of anti-war activists. The lesson learned from all this experience is that Thoreau’s ideas really do work, just as he imagined they would.

This work is compiled from http://thoreau.eserver.org/civil.html using wayback machine

Chapter 1

I HEARTILY ACCEPT the motto, — “That government is best which governs least”; 1 and I should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried out, it finally amounts to this, which also I believe, — “That government is best which governs not at all”; and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have. Government is at best but an expedient; but most governments are usually, and all governments are sometimes, inexpedient. The objections which have been brought against a standing army, and they are many and weighty, and deserve to prevail, may also at last be brought against a standing government. The standing army is only an arm of the standing government. The government itself, which is only the mode which the people have chosen to execute their will, is equally liable to be abused and perverted before the people can act through it. Witness the present Mexican war, the work of comparatively a few individuals using the standing government as their tool; for, in the outset, the people would not have consented to this measure.

This American government — what is it but a tradition, though a recent one, endeavoring to transmit itself unimpaired to posterity, but each instant losing some of its integrity? It has not the vitality and force of a single living man; for a single man can bend it to his will. It is a sort of wooden gun to the people themselves. But it is not the less necessary for this; for the people must have some complicated machinery or other, and hear its din, to satisfy that idea of government which they have. Governments show thus how successfully men can be imposed on, even impose on themselves, for their own advantage. It is excellent, we must all allow. Yet this government never of itself furthered any enterprise, but by the alacrity with which it got out of its way. It does not keep the country free. It does not settle the West. It does not educate. The character inherent in the American people has done all that has been accomplished; and it would have done somewhat more, if the government had not sometimes got in its way. For government is an expedient by which men would fain succeed in letting one another alone; and, as has been said, when it is most expedient, the governed are most let alone by it. Trade and commerce, if they were not made of India rubber, would never manage to bounce over the obstacles which legislators are continually putting in their way; and, if one were to judge these men wholly by the effects of their actions, and not partly by their intentions, they would deserve to be classed and punished with those mischievous persons who put obstructions on the railroads.

But, to speak practically and as a citizen, unlike those who call themselves no-government men, I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better government. Let every man make known what kind of government would command his respect, and that will be one step toward obtaining it.

After all, the practical reason why, when the power is once in the hands of the people, a majority are permitted, and for a long period continue, to rule, is not because they are most likely to be in the right, nor because this seems fairest to the minority, but because they are physically the strongest. But a government in which the majority rule in all cases cannot be based on justice, even as far as men understand it. Can there not be a government in which majorities do not virtually decide right and wrong, but conscience? — in which majorities decide only those questions to which the rule of expediency is applicable? Must the citizen ever for a moment, or in the least degree, resign his conscience to the legislator? Why has every man a conscience, then? I think that we should be men first, and subjects afterward. It is not desirable to cultivate a respect for the law, so much as for the right. The only obligation which I have a right to assume is to do at any time what I think right. It is truly enough said that a corporation has no conscience; but a corporation of conscientious men is a corporation with a conscience. Law never made men a whit more just; and, by means of their respect for it, even the well-disposed are daily made the agents of injustice. A common and natural result of an undue respect for law is, that you may see a file of soldiers, colonel, captain, corporal, privates, powder-monkeys, 5 and all, marching in admirable order over hill and dale to the wars, against their wills, ay, against their common sense and consciences, which makes it very steep marching indeed, and produces a palpitation of the heart. They have no doubt that it is a damnable business in which they are concerned; they are all peaceably inclined. Now, what are they? Men at all? or small movable forts and magazines, at the service of some unscrupulous man in power? Visit the Navy Yard, and behold a marine, such a man as an American government can make, or such as it can make a man with its black arts — a mere shadow and reminiscence of humanity, a man laid out alive and standing, and already, as one may say, buried under arms with funeral accompaniments, though it maybe

“Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, As his corse to the rampart we hurried; Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot O’er the grave where our hero we buried.”

The mass of men serve the state thus, not as men mainly, but as machines, with their bodies. They are the standing army, and the militia, jailers, constables, posse comitatus, etc. In most cases there is no free exercise whatever of the judgment or of the moral sense; but they put themselves on a level with wood and earth and stones; and wooden men can perhaps be manufactured that will serve the purpose as well. Such command no more respect than men of straw or a lump of dirt. They have the same sort of worth only as horses and dogs. Yet such as these even are commonly esteemed good citizens. Others, as most legislators, politicians, lawyers, ministers, and office-holders, serve the state chiefly with their heads; and, as they rarely make any moral distinctions, they are as likely to serve the devil, without intending it, as God. Avery few, as heroes, patriots, martyrs, reformers in the great sense, and men, serve the state with their consciences also, and so necessarily resist it for the most part; and they are commonly treated as enemies by it. A wise man will only be useful as a man, and will not submit to be “clay,” and “stop a hole to keep the wind away,” but leave that office to his dust at least: — “I am too high-born to be propertied, To be a secondary at control, Or useful serving-man and instrument To any sovereign state throughout the world.”

He who gives himself entirely to his fellow-men appears to them useless and selfish; but he who gives himself partially to them is pronounced a benefactor and philanthropist.

How does it become a man to behave toward this American government to-day? I answer, that he cannot without disgrace be associated with it. I cannot for an instant recognize that political organization as my government which is the slave’s government also

All men recognize the right of revolution; that is, the right to refuse allegiance to, and to resist, the government, when its tyranny or its inefficiency are great and unendurable. But almost all say that such is not the case now. But such was the case, they think, in the Revolution of ‘75. If one were to tell me that this was a bad government because it taxed certain foreign commodities brought to its ports, it is most probable that I should not make an ado about it, for I can do without them. All machines have their friction; and possibly this does enough good to counterbalance the evil. At any rate, it is a great evil to make a stir about it. But when the friction comes to have its machine, and oppression and robbery are organized, I say, let us not have such a machine any longer. In other words, when a sixth of the population of a nation which has undertaken to be the refuge of liberty are slaves, and a whole country is unjustly overrun and conquered by a foreign army, and subjected to military law, I think that it is not too soon for honest men to rebel and revolutionize. What makes this duty the more urgent is the fact that the country so overrun is not our own, but ours is the invading army.

Paley, a common authority with many on moral questions, in his chapter on the ‘‘Duty of Submission to Civil Government,” resolves all civil obligation into expediency; and he proceeds to say that “so long as the interest of the whole society requires it, that is, so long as the established government cannot be resisted or changed without public inconveniency, it is the will of God that the established government be obeyed, and no longer” — “This principle being admitted, the justice of every particular case of resistance is reduced to a computation of the quantity of the danger and grievance on the one side and of the probability and expense of redressing it on the other.” Of this, he says, every man shall judge for himself. But Paley appears never to have contemplated those cases to which the rule of expediency does not apply, in which a people, as well as an individual, must do justice, cost what it may. If I have unjustly wrested a plank from a drowning man, I must restore it to him though I drown myself. This, according to Paley, would be inconvenient. But he that would save his life, in such a case, shall lose it. This people must cease to hold slaves, and to make war on Mexico, though it cost them their existence as a people.

In their practice, nations agree with Paley; but does any one think that Massachusetts does exactly what is right at the present crisis?

“A drab of state, a cloth-o’-silver slut, To have her train borne up, and her soul trail in the dirt.’’

Practically speaking, the opponents to a reform in Massachusetts are not a hundred thousand politicians at the South, but a hundred thousand merchants and farmers here, who are more interested in commerce and agriculture than they are in humanity, and are not prepared to do justice to the slave and to Mexico, cost what it may. I quarrel not with far-off foes, but with those who, near at home, co-operate with, and do the bidding of those far away, and without whom the latter would be harmless. We are accustomed to say, that the mass of men are unprepared; but improvement is slow, because the few are not materially wiser or better than the many. It is not so important that many should be as good as you, as that there be some absolute goodness somewhere; for that will leaven the whole lump. There are thousands who are in opinion opposed to slavery and to the war, who yet in effect do nothing to put an end to them; who, esteeming themselves children of Washington and Franklin, sit down with their hands in their pockets, and say that they know not what to do, and do nothing; who even postpone the question of freedom to the question of free-trade, and quietly read the prices-current along with the latest advices from Mexico, after dinner, and, it may be, fall asleep over them both. What is the price-current of an honest man and patriot to-day? They hesitate, and they regret, and sometimes they petition; but they do nothing in earnest and with effect. They will wait, well disposed, for others to remedy the evil, that they may no longer have it to regret. At most, they give only a cheap vote, and a feeble countenance and Godspeed, to the right, as it goes by them. There are nine hundred and ninety-nine patrons of virtue to one virtuous man; but it is easier to deal with the real possessor of a thing than with the temporary guardian of it.

All voting is a sort of gaming, like checkers or backgammon, with a slight moral tinge to it, a playing with right and wrong, with moral questions; and betting naturally accompanies it. The character of the voters is not staked. I cast my vote, perchance, as I think right; but I am not vitally concerned that that right should prevail. I am willing to leave it to the majority. Its obligation, therefore, never exceeds that of expediency. Even voting for the right is doing nothing for it. It is only expressing to men feebly your desire that it should prevail. A wise man will not leave the right to the mercy of chance, nor wish it to prevail through the power of the majority. There is but little virtue in the action of masses of men. When the majority shall at length vote for the abolition of slavery, it will be because they are indifferent to slavery, or because there is but little slavery left to be abolished by their vote. They will then be the only slaves. Only his vote can hasten the abolition of slavery who asserts his own freedom by his vote.

I hear of a convention to be held at Baltimore, or elsewhere, for the selection of a candidate for the Presidency, made up chiefly of editors, and men who are politicians by profession; but I think, what is it to any independent, intelligent, and respectable man what decision they may come to? Shall we not have the advantage of his wisdom and honesty, nevertheless? Can we not count upon some independent votes? Are there not many individuals in the country who do not attend conventions? But no: I find that the respectable man, so called, has immediately drifted from his position, and despairs of his country, when his country has more reason to despair of him. He forthwith adopts one of the candidates thus selected as the only available one, thus proving that he is himself available for any purposes of the demagogue. His vote is of no more worth than that of any unprincipled foreigner or hireling native, who may have been bought. Oh for a man who is a man, and, as my neighbor says, has a bone in his back which you cannot pass your hand through! Our statistics are at fault: the population has been returned too large. How many men are there to a square thousand miles in this country? Hardly one. Does not America offer any inducement for men to settle here? The American has dwindled into an Odd Fellow — one who may be known by the development of his organ of gregariousness, and a manifest lack of intellect and cheerful self-reliance; whose first and chief concern, on coming into the world, is to see that the almshouses are in good repair; and, before yet he has lawfully donned the virile garb, to collect a fund for the support of the widows and orphans that may be; who, in short ventures to live only by the aid of the Mutual Insurance company, which has promised to bury him decently.

It is not a man’s duty, as a matter of course, to devote himself to the eradication of any, even the most enormous wrong; he may still properly have other concerns to engage him; but it is his duty, at least, to wash his hands of it,

and, if he gives it no thought longer, not to give it practically his support. If I devote myself to other pursuits and contemplations, I must first see, at least, that I do not pursue them sitting upon another man’s shoulders. I must get off him first, that he may pursue his contemplations too. See what gross inconsistency is tolerated. I have heard some of my townsmen say, "I should like to have them order me out to help put down an insurrection of the slaves, or to march to Mexico; — see if I would go”; and yet these very men have each, directly by their allegiance, and so indirectly, at least, by their money, furnished a substitute. The soldier is applauded who refuses to serve in an unjust war by those who do not refuse to sustain the unjust government which makes the war; is applauded by those whose own act and authority he disregards and sets at naught; as if the state were penitent to that degree that it hired one to scourge it while it sinned, but not to that degree that it left off sinning for a moment. Thus, under the name of Order and Civil Government, we are all made at last to pay homage to and support our own meanness. After the first blush of sin comes its indifference; and from immoral it becomes, as it were, unmoral, and not quite unnecessary to that life which we have made.

Chapter 2

The broadest and most prevalent error requires the most disinterested virtue to sustain it. The slight reproach to which the virtue of patriotism is commonly liable, the noble are most likely to incur. Those who, while they disapprove of the character and measures of a government, yield to it their allegiance and support are undoubtedly its most conscientious supporters, and so frequently the most serious obstacles to reform. Some are petitioning the State to dissolve the Union, to disregard the requisitions of the President. Why do they not dissolve it themselves — the union between themselves and the State — and refuse to pay their quota into its treasury? Do not they stand in the same relation to the State, that the State does to the Union? And have not the same reasons prevented the State from resisting the Union, which have prevented them from resisting the State?

How can a man be satisfied to entertain an opinion merely, and enjoy it? Is there any enjoyment in it, if his opinion is that he is aggrieved? If you are cheated out of a single dollar by your neighbor, you do not rest satisfied with knowing that you are cheated, or with saying that you are cheated, or even with petitioning him to pay you your due; but you take effectual steps at once to obtain the full amount, and see that you are never cheated again. Action from principle — the perception and the performance of right — changes things and relations; it is essentially revolutionary, and does not consist wholly with anything which was. It not only divides states and churches, it divides families; ay, it divides the individual, separating the diabolical in him from the divine.

Unjust laws exist; shall we be content to obey them, or shall we endeavor to amend them, and obey them until we have succeeded, or shall we transgress them at once? Men generally, under such a government as this, think that they ought to wait until they have persuaded the majority to alter them. They think that, if they should resist, the remedy would be worse than the evil. But it is the fault of the government itself that the remedy is worse than the evil. It makes it worse. Why is it not more apt to anticipate and provide for reform? Why does it not cherish its wise minority? Why does it cry and resist before it is hurt? Why does it not encourage its citizens to be on the alert to point out its faults, and do better than it would have them? Why does it always crucify Christ, and excommunicate Copernicus and Luther, and pronounce Washington and Franklin rebels?

One would think, that a deliberate and practical denial of its authority was the only offence never contemplated by government; else, why has it not assigned its definite, its suitable and proportionate, penalty? If a man who has no property refuses but once to earn nine shillings for the State, he is put in prison for a period unlimited by any law that I know, and determined only by the discretion of those who placed him there; but if he should steal ninety times nine shillings from the State, he is soon permitted to go at large again.

If the injustice is part of the necessary friction of the machine of government, let it go, let it go; perchance it will wear smooth — certainly the machine will wear out. If the injustice has a spring, or a pulley, or a rope, or a crank, exclusively for itself, then perhaps you may consider whether the remedy will not be worse than the evil; but if it is of such a nature that it requires you to be the agent of injustice to another, then, I say, break the law. Let your life be a counter friction to stop the machine. What I have to do is to see, at any rate, that I do not lend myself to the wrong which I condemn.

As for adopting the ways which the State has provided for remedying the evil, I know not of such ways. They take too much time, and a man’s life will be gone. I have other affairs to attend to. I came into this world, not chiefly to make this a good place to live in, but to live in it, be it good or bad. A man has not everything to do, but something; and because he cannot do everything, it is not necessary that he should do something wrong. It is not my business to be petitioning the Governor or the Legislature any more than it is theirs to petition me; and if they should not hear my petition, what should I do then? But in this case the State has provided no way; its very Constitution is the evil. This may seem to be harsh and stubborn and unconciliatory; but it is to treat with the utmost kindness and consideration the only spirit that can appreciate or deserves it. So is an change for the better, like birth and death which convulse the body.

I do not hesitate to say, that those who call themselves Abolitionists should at once effectually withdraw their support, both in person and property, from the government of Massachusetts, and not wait till they constitute a majority of one, before they suffer the right to prevail through them. I think that it is enough if they have God on their side, without waiting for that other one. Moreover, any man more right than his neighbors constitutes a majority of one already.

I meet this American government, or its representative, the State government, directly, and face to face, once a year — no more — in the person of its tax-gatherer; this is the only mode in which a man situated as I am necessarily meets it; and it then says distinctly, Recognize me; and the simplest, the most effectual, and, in the present posture of affairs, the indispensablest mode of treating with it on this head, of expressing your little satisfaction with and love for it, is to deny it then. My civil neighbor, the tax-gatherer, is the very man I have to deal with — for it is, after all, with men and not with parchment that I quarrel — and he has voluntarily chosen to be an agent of the government. How shall he ever know well what he is and does as an officer of the government, or as a man, until he is obliged to consider whether he shall treat me, his neighbor, for whom he has respect, as a neighbor and well-disposed man, or as a maniac and disturber of the peace, and see if he can get over this obstruction to his neighborliness without a ruder and more impetuous thought or speech corresponding with his action? I know this well, that if one thousand, if one hundred, if ten men whom I could name — if ten honest men only — ay, if one HONEST man, in this State of Massachusetts, ceasing to hold slaves, were actually to withdraw from this copartnership, and be locked up in the county jail therefor, it would be the abolition of slavery in America. For it matters not how small the beginning may seem to be: what is once well done is done forever. But we love better to talk about it: that we say is our mission. Reform keeps many scores of newspapers in its service, but not one man. If my esteemed neighbor, the State’s ambassador, who will devote his days to the settlement of the question of human rights in the Council Chamber, instead of being threatened with the prisons of Carolina, were to sit down the prisoner of Massachusetts, that State which is so anxious to foist the sin of slavery upon her sister — though at present she can discover only an act of inhospitality to be the ground of a quarrel with her — the Legislature would not wholly waive the subject the following winter.

Under a government which imprisons any unjustly, the true place for a just man is also a prison. The proper place to-day, the only place which Massachusetts has provided for her freer and less desponding spirits, is in her prisons, to be put out and locked out of the State by her own act, as they have already put themselves out by their principles. It is there that the fugitive slave, and the Mexican prisoner on parole, and the Indian come to plead the wrongs of his race, should find them; on that separate, but more free and honorable ground, where the State places those who are not with her, but against her — the only house in a slave State in which a free man can abide with honor. If any think that their influence would be lost there, and their voices no longer afflict the ear of the State, that they would not be as an enemy within its walls, they do not know by how much truth is stronger than error, nor how much more eloquently and effectively he can combat injustice who has experienced a little in his own person. Cast your whole vote, not a strip of paper merely, but your whole influence. A minority is powerless while it conforms to the majority; it is not even a minority then; but it is irresistible when it clogs by its whole weight. If the alternative is to keep all just men in prison, or give up war and slavery, the State will not hesitate which to choose. If a thousand men were not to pay their tax-bills this year, that would not be a violent and bloody measure, as it would be to pay them, and enable the State to commit violence and shed innocent blood. This is, in fact, the definition of a peaceable revolution, if any such is possible. If the tax-gatherer, or any other public officer, asks me, as one has done, “But what shall I do?” my answer is, “If you really wish to do anything, resign your office.” When the subject has refused allegiance, and the officer has resigned his office, then the revolution is accomplished. But even suppose blood should flow. Is there not a sort of blood shed when the conscience is wounded? Through this wound a man’s real manhood and immortality flow out, and he bleeds to an everlasting death. I see this blood flowing now.

I have contemplated the imprisonment of the offender, rather than the seizure of his goods — though both will serve the same purpose — because they who assert the purest right, and consequently are most dangerous to a corrupt State, commonly have not spent much time in accumulating property. To such the State renders comparatively small service, and a slight tax is wont to appear exorbitant, particularly if they are obliged to earn it by special labor with their hands. If there were one who lived wholly without the use of money, the State itself would hesitate to demand it of him. But the rich man — not to make any invidious comparison — is always sold to the institution which makes him rich. Absolutely speaking, the more money, the less virtue; for money comes between a man and his objects, and obtains them for him; and it was certainly no great virtue to obtain it. It puts to rest many questions which he would otherwise be taxed to answer; while the only new question which it puts is the hard but superfluous one, how to spend it. Thus his moral ground is taken from under his feet. The opportunities of living are diminished in proportion as what are called the "means” are increased. The best thing a man can do for his culture when he is rich is to endeavor to carry out those schemes which he entertained when he was poor. Christ answered the Herodians according to their condition. “Show me the tribute-money,” said he; — and one took a penny out of his pocket; — if you use money which has the image of Caesar on it, and which he has made current and valuable, that is, if you are men of the State, and gladly enjoy the advantages of Caesar’s government, then pay him back some of his own when he demands it; “Render therefore to Caesar that which is Caesar’s, and to God those things which are God’s” — leaving them no wiser than before as to which was which; for they did not wish to know.

When I converse with the freest of my neighbors, I perceive that, whatever they may say about the magnitude and seriousness of the question, and their regard for the public tranquillity, the long and the short of the matter is, that they cannot spare the protection of the existing government, and they dread the consequences to their property and families of disobedience to it. For my own part, I should not like to think that I ever rely on the protection of the State. But, if I deny the authority of the State when it presents its tax-bill, it will soon take and waste all my property, and so harass me and my children without end. This is hard. This makes it impossible for a man to live honestly, and at the same time comfortably in outward respects. It will not be worth the while to accumulate property; that would be sure to go again. You must hire or squat somewhere, and raise but a small crop, and eat that soon. You must live within yourself, and depend upon yourself always tucked up and ready for a start, and not have many affairs. A man may grow rich in Turkey even, if he will be in all respects a good subject of the Turkish government. Confucius said, “If a state is governed by the principles of reason, poverty and misery are subjects of shame; if a state is not governed by the principles of reason, riches and honors are the subjects of shame.” No: until I want the protection of Massachusetts to be extended to me in some distant Southern port, where my liberty is endangered, or until I am bent solely on building up an estate at home by peaceful enterprise, I can afford to refuse allegiance to Massachusetts, and her right to my property and life. It costs me less in every sense to incur the penalty of disobedience to the State than it would to obey. I should feel as if I were worth less in that case.

Some years ago, the State met me in behalf of the Church, and commanded me to pay a certain sum toward the support of a clergyman whose preaching my father attended, but never I myself. “Pay,” it said, “or be locked up in the jail.” I declined to pay. But, unfortunately, another man saw fit to pay it. I did not see why the schoolmaster should be taxed to support the priest, and not the priest the schoolmaster: for I was not the State’s schoolmaster, but I supported myself by voluntary subscription. I did not see why the lyceum should not present its tax-bill, and have the State to back its demand, as well as the Church. However, at the request of the selectmen, I condescended to make some such statement as this in writing: — “Know all men by these presents, that I, Henry Thoreau, do not wish to be regarded as a member of any incorporated society which I have not joined.” This I gave to the town clerk; and he has it. The State, having thus learned that I did not wish to be regarded as a member of that church, has never made a like demand on me since; though it said that it must adhere to its original presumption that time. If I had known how to name them, I should then have signed off in detail from all the societies which I never signed on to; but I did not know where to find a complete list.

I have paid no poll-tax for six years. I was put into a jail once on this account, for one night; and, as I stood considering the walls of solid stone, two or three feet thick, the door of wood and iron, a foot thick, and the iron grating which strained the light, I could not help being struck with the foolishness of that institution which treated me as if I were mere flesh and blood and bones, to be locked up. I wondered that it should have concluded at length that this was the best use it could put me to, and had never thought to avail itself of my services in some way. I saw that, if there was a wall of stone between me and my townsmen, there was a still more difficult one to climb or break through, before they could get to be as free as I was. I did not for a moment feel confined, and the walls seemed a great waste of stone and mortar. I felt as if I alone of all my townsmen had paid my tax. They plainly did not know how to treat me, but behaved like persons who are underbred. In every threat and in every compliment there was a blunder; for they thought that my chief desire was to stand the other side of that stone wall. I could not but smile to see how industriously they locked the door on my meditations, which followed them out again without let or hindrance, and they were really all that was dangerous. As they could not reach me, they had resolved to punish my body; just as boys, if they cannot come at some person against whom they have a spite, will abuse his dog. I saw that the State was half-witted, that it was timid as a lone woman with her silver spoons, and that it did not know its friends from its foes, and I lost all my remaining respect for it, and pitied it.

Thus the State never intentionally confronts a man’s sense, intellectual or moral, but only his body, his senses. It is not armed with superior wit or honesty, but with superior physical strength. I was not born to be forced. I will breathe after my own fashion. Let us see who is the strongest. What force has a multitude? They only can force me who obey a higher law than I. They force me to become like themselves. I do not hear of men being forced to have this way or that by masses of men. What sort of life were that to live? When I meet a government which says to me, “Your money or your life,” why should I be in haste to give it my money? It may be in a great strait, and not know what to do: I cannot help that. It must help itself; do as I do. It is not worth the while to snivel about it. I am not responsible for the successful working of the machinery of society. I am not the son of the engineer. I perceive that, when an acorn and a chestnut fall side by side, the one does not remain inert to make way for the other, but both obey their own laws, and spring and grow and flourish as best they can, till one, perchance, overshadows and destroys the other. If a plant cannot live according to its nature, it dies; and so a man.

Chapter 3

The night in prison was novel and interesting enough. The prisoners in their shirt-sleeves were enjoying a chat and the evening air in the doorway, when I entered. But the jailer said, “Come, boys, it is time to lock up”; and so they dispersed, and I heard the sound of their steps returning into the hollow apartments. My room-mate was introduced to me by the jailer as “a first-rate fellow and a clever man.” When the door was locked, he showed me where to hang my hat, and how he managed matters there. The rooms were whitewashed once a month; and this one, at least, was the whitest, most simply furnished, and probably the neatest apartment in the town. He naturally wanted to know where I came from, and what brought me there; and, when I had told him, I asked him in my turn how he came there, presuming him to be an honest man, of course; and, as the world goes, I believe he was. “Why,” said he, “they accuse me of burning a barn; but I never did it.” As near as I could discover, he had probably gone to bed in a barn when drunk, and smoked his pipe there; and so a barn was burnt. He had the reputation of being a clever man, had been there some three months waiting for his trial to come on, and would have to wait as much longer; but he was quite domesticated and contented, since he got his board for nothing, and thought that he was well treated.

He occupied one window, and I the other; and I saw that if one stayed there long, his principal business would be to look out the window. I had soon read all the tracts that were left there, and examined where former prisoners had broken out, and where a grate had been sawed off, and heard the history of the various occupants of that room; for I found that even here there was a history and a gossip which never circulated beyond the walls of the jail. Probably this is the only house in the town where verses are composed, which are afterward printed in a circular form, but not published. I was shown quite a long list of verses which were composed by some young men who had been detected in an attempt to escape, who avenged themselves by singing them.

I pumped my fellow-prisoner as dry as I could, for fear I should never see him again; but at length he showed me which was my bed, and left me to blow out the lamp.

It was like travelling into a far country, such as I had never expected to behold, to he there for one night. It seemed to me that I never had heard the townclock strike before, nor the evening sounds of the village; for we slept with the windows open, which were inside the grating. It was to see my native village in the light of the Middle Ages, and our Concord was turned into a Rhine stream, and visions of knights and castles passed before me. They were the voices of old burghers that I heard in the streets. I was an involuntary spectator and auditor of whatever was done and said in the kitchen of the adjacent village-inn — a wholly new and rare experience to me. It was a closer view of my native town. I was fairly inside of it. I never had seen its institutions before. This is one of its peculiar institutions; for it is a shire town . 26 I began to comprehend what its inhabitants were about.

In the morning, our breakfasts were put through the hole in the door, in small oblong-square tin pans, made to fit, and holding a pint of chocolate, with brown bread, and an iron spoon. When they called for the vessels again, I was green enough to return what bread I had left; but my comrade seized it, and said that I should lay that up for lunch or dinner. Soon after he was let out to work at haying in a neighboring field, whither he went every day, and would not be back till noon; so he bade me good-day, saying that he doubted if he should see me again.

When I came out of prison — for some one interfered, and paid that tax — I did not perceive that great changes had taken place on the common, such as he observed who went in a youth and emerged a tottering and gray-headed man; and yet a change had to my eyes come over the scene — the town, and State, and country — greater than any that mere time could effect. I saw yet more distinctly the State in which I lived. I saw to what extent the people among whom I lived could be trusted as good neighbors and friends; that their friendship was for summer weather only; that they did not greatly propose to do right; that they were a distinct race from me by their prejudices and superstitions, as the Chinamen and Malays are; that in their sacrifices to humanity, they ran no risks, not even to their property; that after all they were not so noble but they treated the thief as he had treated them, and hoped, by a certain outward observance and a few prayers, and by walking in a particular straight though useless path from time to time, to save their souls. This may be to judge my neighbors harshly; for I believe that many of them are not aware that they have such an institution as the jail in their village.

It was formerly the custom in our village, when a poor debtor came out of jail, for his acquaintances to salute him, looking through their fingers, which were crossed to represent the grating of a jail window, “How do ye do?” My neighbors did not thus salute me, but first looked at me, and then at one another, as if I had returned from a long journey. I was put into jail as I was going to the shoemaker’s to get a shoe which was mended. When I was let out the next morning, I proceeded to finish my errand, and, having put on my mended shoe, joined a huckleberry party, who were impatient to put themselves under my conduct; and in half an hour — for the horse was soon tackled — was in the midst of a huckleberry field, on one of our highest hills, two miles off, and then the State was nowhere to be seen.

This is the whole history of "My Prisons .”

I have never declined paying the highway tax, because I am as desirous of being a good neighbor as I am of being a bad subject; and as for supporting schools, I am doing my part to educate my fellow-countrymen now. It is for no particular item in the tax-bill that I refuse to pay it. I simply wish to refuse allegiance to the State, to withdraw and stand aloof from it effectually. I do not care to trace the course of my dollar, if I could, till it buys a man or a musket to shoot one with — the dollar is innocent — but I am concerned to trace the effects of my allegiance. In fact, I quietly declare war with the State, after my fashion, though I will still make what use and get what advantage of her I can, as is usual in such cases.

If others pay the tax which is demanded of me, from a sympathy with the State, they do but what they have already done in their own case, or rather they abet injustice to a greater extent than the State requires. If they pay the tax from a mistaken interest in the individual taxed, to save his property, or prevent his going to jail, it is because they have not considered wisely how far they let their private feelings interfere with the public good.

This, then, is my position at present. But one cannot be too much on his guard in such a case, lest his action be biased by obstinacy or an undue regard for the opinions of men. Let him see that he does only what belongs to himself and to the hour.

I think sometimes, Why, this people mean well; they are only ignorant; they would do better if they knew how: why give your neighbors this pain to treat you as they are not inclined to? But I think, again, This is no reason why I should do as they do, or permit others to suffer much greater pain of a different kind. Again, I sometimes say to myself, When many millions of men, without heat, without ill-will, without personal feeling of any kind, demand of you a few shillings only, without the possibility, such is their constitution, of retracting or altering their present demand, and without the possibility, on your side, of appeal to any other millions, why expose yourself to this overwhelming brute force? You do not resist cold and hunger, the winds and the waves, thus obstinately; you quietly submit to a thousand similar necessities. You do not put your head into the fire. But just in proportion as I regard this as not wholly a brute force, but partly a human force, and consider that I have relations to those millions as to so many millions of men, and not of mere brute or inanimate things, I see that appeal is possible, first and instantaneously, from them to the Maker of them, and, secondly, from them to themselves. But, if I put my head deliberately into the fire, there is no appeal to fire or to the Maker of fire, and I have only myself to blame. If I could convince myself that I have any right to be satisfied with men as they are, and to treat them accordingly, and not according, in some respects, to my requisitions and expectations of what they and I ought to be, then, like a good Mussulman and fatalist, I should endeavor to be satisfied with things as they are, and say it is the will of God. And, above all, there is this difference between resisting this and a purely brute or natural force, that I can resist this with some effect; but I cannot expect, like Orpheus , to change the nature of the rocks and trees and beasts.

I do not wish to quarrel with any man or nation. I do not wish to split hairs, to make fine distinctions, or set myself up as better than my neighbors. I seek rather, I may say, even an excuse for conforming to the laws of the land. I am but too ready to conform to them. Indeed, I have reason to suspect myself on this head; and each year, as the tax-gatherer comes round, I find myself disposed to review the acts and position of the general and State governments, and the spirit of the people, to discover a pretext for conformity.

“We must affect our country as our parents, And if at any time we alienate Our love or industry from doing it honor, We must respect effects and teach the soul Matter of conscience and religion, And not desire of rule or benefit .”

I believe that the State will soon be able to take all my work of this sort out of my hands, and then I shall be no better a patriot than my fellow-countrymen. Seen from a lower point of view, the Constitution, with all its faults, is very good; the law and the courts are very respectable; even this State and this American government are, in many respects, very admirable and rare things, to be thankful for, such as a great many have described them; but seen from a point of view a little higher, they are what I have described them; seen from a higher still, and the highest, who shall say what they are, or that they are worth looking at or thinking of at all?

However, the government does not concern me much, and I shall bestow the fewest possible thoughts on it. It is not many moments that I live under a government, even in this world. If a man is thought-free, fancy-free, imagination-free, that which is not never for a long time appearing to be to him, unwise rulers or reformers cannot fatally interrupt him.

I know that most men think differently from myself; but those whose lives are by profession devoted to the study of these or kindred subjects, content me as little as any. Statesmen and legislators, standing so completely within the institution, never distinctly and nakedly behold it. They speak of moving society, but have no resting-place without it. They may be men of a certain experience and discrimination, and have no doubt invented ingenious and even useful systems, for which we sincerely thank them; but all their wit and usefulness lie within certain not very wide limits. They are wont to forget that the world is not governed by policy and expediency. Webster never goes behind government, and so cannot speak with authority about it. His words are wisdom to those legislators who contemplate no essential reform in the existing government; but for thinkers, and those who legislate for all time, he never once glances at the subject. I know of those whose serene and wise speculations on this theme would soon reveal the limits of his mind’s range and hospitality. Yet, compared with the cheap professions of most reformers, and the still cheaper wisdom and eloquence of politicians in general, his are almost the only sensible and valuable words, and we thank Heaven for him. Comparatively, he is always strong, original, and, above all, practical. Still, his quality is not wisdom, but prudence. The lawyer’s truth is not truth, but consistency or a consistent expediency. Truth is always in harmony with herself, and is not concerned chiefly to reveal the justice that may consist with wrong-doing. He well deserves to be called, as he has been called, the Defender of the Constitution. There are really no blows to be given by him but defensive ones. He is not a leader, but a follower. His leaders are the men of ‘87 . “I have never made an effort,” he says, “and never propose to make an effort; I have never countenanced an effort, and never mean to countenance an effort, to disturb the arrangement as originally made, by which the various States came into the Union.” Still thinking of the sanction which the Constitution gives to slavery, he says, “Because it was a part of the original compact — let it stand.” Notwithstanding his special acuteness and ability, he is unable to take a fact out of its merely political relations, and behold it as it lies absolutely to be disposed of by the intellect — what, for instance, it behooves a man to do here in America to-day with regard to slavery, but ventures, or is driven, to make some such desperate answer as the following, while professing to speak absolutely, and as a private man — from which what new and singular code of social duties might be inferred? “The manner,” says he, “in which the governments of those States where slavery exists are to regulate it is for their own consideration, under their responsibility to their constituents, to the general laws of propriety, humanity, and justice, and to God. Associations formed elsewhere, springing from a feeling of humanity, or any other cause, have nothing whatever to do with it. They have never received any encouragement from me, and they never will.”

They who know of no purer sources of truth, who have traced up its stream no higher, stand, and wisely stand, by the Bible and the Constitution, and drink at it there with reverence and humility; but they who behold where it comes trickling into this lake or that pool, gird up their loins once more, and continue their pilgrimage toward its fountain-head.

No man with a genius for legislation has appeared in America. They are rare in the history of the world. There are orators, politicians, and eloquent men, by the thousand; but the speaker has not yet opened his mouth to speak who is capable of settling the much-vexed questions of the day. We love eloquence for its own sake, and not for any truth which it may utter, or any heroism it may inspire. Our legislators have not yet learned the comparative value of free-trade and of freedom, of union, and of rectitude, to a nation. They have no genius or talent for comparatively humble questions of taxation and finance, commerce and manufacturers and agriculture. If we were left solely to the wordy wit of legislators in Congress for our guidance, uncorrected by the seasonable experience and the effectual complaints of the people, America would not long retain her rank among the nations. For eighteen hundred years, though perchance I have no right to say it, the New Testament has been written; yet where is the legislator who has wisdom and practical talent enough to avail himself of the light which it sheds on the science of legislation?

The authority of government, even such as I am willing to submit to — for I will cheerfully obey those who know and can do better than I, and in many things even those who neither know nor can do so well — is still an impure one: to be strictly just, it must have the sanction and consent of the governed. It can have no pure right over my person and property but what I concede to it. The progress from an absolute to a limited monarchy, from a limited monarchy to a democracy, is a progress toward a true respect for the individual. Even the Chinese philosopher was wise enough to regard the individual as the basis of the empire. Is a democracy, such as we know it, the last improvement possible in government? Is it not possible to take a step further towards recognizing and organizing the rights of man? There will never be a really free and enlightened State until the State comes to recognize the individual as a higher and independent power, from which all its own power and authority are derived, and treats him accordingly. I please myself with imagining a State at least which can afford to be just to all men, and to treat the individual with respect as a neighbor; which even would not think it inconsistent with its own repose if a few were to live aloof from it, not meddling with it, nor embraced by it, who fulfilled all the duties of neighbors and fellow-men. A State which bore this kind of fruit, and suffered it to drop off as fast as it ripened, would prepare the way for a still more perfect and glorious State, which also I have imagined, but not yet anywhere seen.

About the Author

Henry David Thoreau was an American essayist, poet, and philosopher. A leading transcendentalism he is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay “Civil Disobedience”, an argument for disobedience to an unjust state. He work was inspiration to leaders like Gandhi & Martin Luther King

Travis McCracken 2024-03-25 Travis McCracken 2024-03-25

Assessment of Chinese Maritime Interests in Indian Ocean Region Commodore Venugopal Vengalil

Forward by

Travis McCracken

Genghis Khan's fabled decree, "If you had not committed great sins, God would not have sent a punishment like me upon you,"

my thought is to argue for a transformative approach,

where we eschew the aggressive postures of nations like Russia and China in favour of creating a global tapestry woven with the threads of abundance and collective well-being.

As we look beyond the strategies that echo the conquests of Genghis Khan, i envision a world where peace is not enforced through dominance but achieved through a shared commitment to prosperity that knows no borders.

It is through this lens that we must view our current geopolitical challenges, seeking not to emulate the punitive forces of history, but to create a society where the specter of scarcity is replaced with the reality of abundance—an abundance that ensures peace and stability far more effectively than any arsenal ever could.

Nations need leaders aligning with the overarching theme of transitioning from traditional military strategies to the creation of a society founded on abundance and peace

In a world where the echoes of history reverberate through the present, it becomes imperative to examine the patterns of international conduct. This comes at a time when the convergence of military ambition and economic expansion by nations like Russia and China signals a crucial juncture in global dynamics. The oft-trodden path of flexing military muscle, under the guise of safeguarding interests, stands in stark contrast to the ideals of global peace and cooperation.

Yet, the question arises: Is it possible to shift from a zero-sum game, dictated by the scarcity of resources, to an economic paradigm of abundance? This collection suggests that the true essence of peacekeeping lies not in the expansion of military outposts and the overt display of power but in the collective endeavor to create a society where abundance is not a privilege but a common wealth.

We stand at the cusp of a new era, where the strategies of the past need not dictate the possibilities of the future. This text aims to foster a dialogue centered on collaboration over confrontation, on building bridges rather than barriers, and ultimately, on redefining the economics of our time to herald an age of unprecedented prosperity and peace.

Assessment of Chinese Maritime Interests in the Indian Ocean Region

By Cmde Venugopal Vengalil

In the span of the last two decades, China has risen meteorically, expanding its economic and military prowess. Its engagements in the Indian Ocean have significantly grown, leading to regional apprehensions regarding its burgeoning naval presence and the deployment of so-called 'debt trap' diplomacy—potentially providing China with significant military advantages in the area. While the exact nature of China’s objectives in the Indian Ocean remains opaque, the Chinese leadership is undoubtedly gearing up to employ a variety of military missions to safeguard what it perceives as its strategic interests.

This discourse aims to dissect the underpinnings and broader implications of China’s maritime strategy, placing a particular emphasis on the Indian Ocean—a region of quintessential importance to China for its energy security and maritime commerce. An analytical examination of their 'String of Pearls' strategy and the strategic inroads achieved to cement a presence in the region will be offered, delineating the implications from both commercial and strategic vantage points. The viability of leveraging these commercial footholds for military purposes stands as a pivotal topic. Furthermore, the evolution of the Chinese Navy from a regional force to one capable of blue-water operations and whether it can effectively project power beyond its traditional borders remains a contentious subject. This paper endeavors to unravel the true capacity of the Chinese Navy to secure its maritime interests in the Indian Ocean.

Admiral Mahan's doctrine of "sea power" encapsulates the notion of achieving command and establishing political and military dominion over pivotal areas. To distill this concept into its essence, he posits a cyclical relationship where commerce spawns wealth, which in turn finances the navy that underpins trade and extends a country's influence. Mahan's further exposition posits that 'sea control', through maritime commerce and naval dominance, spells out a preeminent global influence. This stems from the principle that while the bounty of the land is substantial, it is the mastery of the seas that augments and secures a nation's reach and power.

The Vitality of Maritime Strategy in China’s Doctrine

The sea's role in enabling vital exchanges is paramount, and this holds true for the multifaceted aspects of sea power that China wields—spanning from hard naval strength to the softer power of trade and resource utilization. This enduring relevance is exemplified in China’s modern maritime strategy, which ensures that the Indian Ocean's supply lines, constituting 80% of China's imported oil as of December 2022, remain secure and efficient, with daily consumption reported at 14.295 million barrels.

Beijing has extended its strategic reach across the Indian Ocean, ostensibly reviving the Silk Route under the guise of development and trade, with infrastructure projects designed to fortify its energy security. However, underlying this expansion is a concern for the security of its trade routes, where any disruption could spell an energy crisis or even result in military stagnation.

China’s Evolving Maritime Strategy

Transitioning from a traditional land power, China has experienced a paradigm shift toward a robust maritime consciousness. The post-Cold War era has seen China pivot from a regional security focus to asserting its presence as a central maritime power. The pursuit of sea power and maritime rights has become pivotal to Beijing’s strategic objectives, aiming for substantial politico-economic and military influence within the Indo-Pacific region—a cornerstone in its aspiration to be recognized as a preeminent global maritime force.

This shift necessitates an expansion in maritime capabilities, with a proactive stance towards developing the navy and readiness for potential conflict. This evolved maritime strategy moves beyond Maoist coastal defense towards a proactive offshore and blue-water defense, a stance reinforced by key points in China’s recent defense white paper:

- China’s military direction is increasingly geared towards the protection of its international interests and fostering global peace.

- Securing Chinese investments and the welfare of its citizens abroad has gained new significance in this era.

- Enhancing its capabilities to address both international and domestic security threats is now a priority.

Navigating the Malacca Dilemma

The 'Malacca Dilemma' has gained prominence in discussions on China's maritime strategy in the Indian Ocean. Scrutinizing this dilemma uncovers several ambiguities, particularly concerning geography and security. A comprehensive analysis beyond the narrow focus on the Malacca Strait illuminates that it is not the sole passage from the Indian Ocean Region (IOR). Alternative routes through the Sunda, Lombok, and Makassar Straits exist, which are viable and not as economically burdensome as the Chinese narrative suggests. If a chokepoint truly demands attention from Chinese policymakers, then the Strait of Hormuz stands out as a critical concern. This is due to the strait's significant geopolitical implications and the fact that it presents a larger vulnerability for China, being outside of the People's Liberation Army Navy's (PLAN) traditional maritime sphere of influence, which is more effectively countered by U.S. and Indian naval superiority.

Furthermore, the perceived security risks in the Malacca Strait are often overstated by Beijing. Neutral nations such as Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore encircle the strait and firmly oppose any single international hegemony, including U.S.-led initiatives. This resistance is rooted in a desire to maintain regional cooperation and autonomy. Disagreements also persist locally over the primary threats to the straits—with the U.S. and Singapore pointing to terrorism and piracy, while Malaysia and Indonesia view these concerns as potentially overstated justifications for strategic dominance. This balance of regional powers effectively mitigates the risk of any one nation imposing control over the Malacca Strait and challenges the narrative of a singular, overarching Chinese security concern.

The Strategic Bluff and its Global Repercussions

The term 'Malacca Bluff' is coined to reflect China's strategic posturing, emphasizing the Indian Ocean Region's (IOR) significance to Beijing. China’s "Two Oceans" doctrine seeks dominion over the Indian and Pacific Oceans, pivotal for its maritime routes, which are essential for the country’s energy requirements and economic sustenance. While the United States and allied powers pose significant resistance, the perceived lack of a cohesive security strategy in the IOR presents China with opportunities for expansion. However, this strategy is not improvised; it aligns with a comprehensive doctrine, as evidenced by Chinese defense white papers that have evolved from a stance of non-intervention to one that endorses distant force projection, stimulated by the global financial crisis of 2008 and the perceived decline of Western hegemony.

China’s doctrine in the IOR can be dissected into economic, military, and diplomatic vectors, with:

Economic Influence

China acknowledges the strategic potency of economic leverage in a region replete with fragile nation-states. The IOR, home to countries like Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Myanmar, has a history of political instability and susceptibility to external influences. Beijing’s engagement through vast infrastructure projects under the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is often pitched as mutually beneficial. Yet, these projects come under scrutiny for potentially precipitating unsustainable debt, thus offering China a strategic foothold and enhanced surveillance capabilities along vital maritime routes. These initiatives, while not immediately economically viable for the host nations, serve a dual purpose: they address China’s own security needs and fortify its geopolitical presence.

Military Expansion

On the military front, China’s geo-economic ambitions are underpinned by a growing military footprint in the IOR, a testament to its quest for regional hegemony. The People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) has progressively expanded its capabilities, reflecting China’s determination to assert its influence and secure its maritime interests.

Strategic Assertions and Diplomatic Engagements

The enhancement of undersea capabilities and the strategic deployment of naval assets signify China's intention to prioritize maritime domains in its military calculus. The focus on developing both offensive and counteroffensive measures showcases China’s resolve to safeguard its maritime routes, underscoring the value it places on naval strength as a vehicle for securing trade and asserting its economic influence in the IOR.

Diplomatic Leverage through Multinational Forums

China has adeptly cemented its role within the Indian Ocean Region's (IOR) multi-lateral architecture by leveraging diplomatic channels. Beyond its steadfast alliance with Pakistan, Beijing has expanded its military and economic ties with Bangladesh, emerging as a key supplier of military equipment and a prominent trade partner. In the island nations of the IOR — Sri Lanka, Maldives, Mauritius, and Seychelles — which are strategic to China’s maritime routes, it has fostered relationships that serve its strategic imperatives. These relationships have facilitated China’s growing influence within key regional organizations such as the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA), where China is a dialogue partner, and the Indian Ocean Commission (IOC), where it holds observer status.

The Role of China International Development Cooperation Agency (CIDCA)

Established in April 2018, the China International Development Cooperation Agency (CIDCA) represents Beijing’s ambition for a streamlined and impactful foreign aid strategy, particularly in reinforcing the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in the Indian Ocean Region. At the latest assembly in November 2022, the CIDCA spearheaded discussions for establishing a maritime disaster prevention and mitigation framework within the region. The consensus among participants highlighted the need for enhanced policy coordination and the promotion of sustainable economic growth through marine resources, including fisheries, renewable energy, tourism, and maritime commerce.

Regional Ambitions and Strategic Outposts

Beijing’s assertive drive to establish its hegemony in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) is a direct response to the perceived decline of the United States and the strategic vacuum it believes this creates. This assertiveness is part of a calculated three-pronged approach to solidify its influence.

Chinese Engagements in the Indian Ocean Region

Bangladesh

Bangladesh has become a significant focus of Chinese Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), with substantial contributions to its maritime infrastructure, energy sector, and military capabilities. Notably, a $1.2 billion investment in a submarine base at BNS Sheikh Hasina, commissioned in April 2023, is part of the broader 'Forces Goal 2030' initiative, aiming to modernize Bangladesh’s military capabilities. Further investments in the development of Chittagong, Payra, and Mongla ports underscore China's commitment to deepening its strategic foothold in the region. The possibility of utilizing Cox’s Bazar’s submarine base during peacetime heightens the strategic implications, although this remains a topic of geopolitical contention.

COCO ISLANDS

The developments on the Coco Islands suggest the establishment of an advanced surveillance and communication hub. It is speculated that this could serve as a strategic point for monitoring the eastern flank of India, including missile test sites. Recent satellite imagery from January 2023 indicates significant enhancements to the infrastructure, including an extended 2300-meter runway, a radar installation, and the addition of two new hangars, indicating a growing military presence.

Strategic Developments in Myanmar and Beyond

In Myanmar, China’s investment in critical infrastructure such as parallel oil and natural gas pipelines from Kyaukphyu to Kunming, spanning 771 km, and further extending to Guangxi covering 2806 km in total, represents a strategic maneuver. This network not only bypasses the Malacca Strait but also shortens the transit by approximately 700 km. These pipelines are strategically crucial, offering an alternative route to the Malacca Strait, ensuring energy security in the face of potential blockades. While there are no confirmed reports of Chinese military installations at these ports, China remains a principal military hardware supplier to Myanmar.

Expanding Influence in Sri Lanka

China’s financial infusion into Sri Lanka under the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has reached nearly USD 15 billion, targeting key maritime and infrastructure projects. The Hambantota port, funded by China, is strategically located to facilitate the transit of oil tankers from the Middle East and Africa, serving as a vital node in the oceanic routes. Additional major projects include a USD 2 billion investment by China Merchants Group to develop Colombo port into South Asia’s largest logistics hub by 2025. Moreover, the Colombo port city project initiated in 2015 underscores China’s intent to solidify its presence in the Indian Ocean as a strategic and commercial powerhouse. Contrary to some analysts' skepticism, the commitment to infrastructure in Sri Lanka reflects a strategic calculation rather than a miscalculation due to proximity to India and logistical challenges.

The Significance of Gwadar

Gwadar port in Pakistan holds future strategic potential for China as a military outpost, free from the geopolitical constraints typically found in the region. Its location is geopolitically advantageous, situated near the Iranian border and providing a vantage point over the Strait of Hormuz, a crucial maritime chokepoint.

Strategic Maritime Outposts and Policy Shifts

The Chinese naval base in Djibouti, operational since August 2017, represents China’s strategic positioning within close proximity to the Indian Ocean, providing a pivotal location for monitoring and potentially influencing the region’s naval dynamics. This move into Djibouti underlines China’s intention to protect its energy routes and overseas interests with a permanent military presence, which also enables operations ranging from anti-piracy initiatives in the Gulf of Aden to potential non-combatant evacuation scenarios.

Obock Naval Base and its Geostrategic Role

The establishment of the Obock Naval Base aligns with China’s expanding reach in international affairs, particularly in Africa. This base serves China’s broader strategy, functioning as both an economic and military foothold in the Indian Ocean Region. It serves as a logistic and operational hub for the Chinese Navy, bolstering their capability to safeguard maritime trade routes and asserting their rising status as a global maritime power.

People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) Aspirations in the Indian Ocean

The PLAN's presence in the Indian Ocean is growing more pronounced, reflecting broader ambitions to extend China’s naval capabilities. By hosting advanced warships and strategic aircraft, China is reinforcing its foreign policy with a demonstration of military strength. This strategic pivot marks a significant evolution in China’s international posture, aiming to reshape existing global frameworks and signaling its intent to wield greater influence through a permanent naval presence.

Strategic Aspirations and Maritime Expansion

The People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN), one of the world's largest naval forces, is seemingly on course to establish a significant blue-water operational capability, indicating a potential future Indian Ocean fleet. While presently focused on anti-piracy operations and maintaining a naval presence, there are political and technical considerations that may currently preclude the official formation of an Indian Ocean fleet to exert regional dominance.

Modernization and Strategy of the PLAN

The strategic overhaul of the PLAN in recent decades underscores China’s ambition to protect its interests in East Asia and counterbalance any potential threats from contingencies involving Taiwan. The PLAN, now equipped with a modern fleet including over 100 advanced destroyers, frigates, and corvettes, is strategically positioning itself for sustained presence and influence in the Indian Ocean.

Concept of a 'Two Fleet' Strategy

Strategists are debating a future in which the PLAN will focus on two primary theaters: the western Pacific and the northern Indian Ocean, the latter stretching from the Middle East to the Malacca Strait. The concept involves the deployment of two ocean-going fleets: the Pacific fleet centered around aircraft carriers, and the Indian Ocean Fleet, potentially anchored at key locations in friendly nations across the region. Such strategic distribution would enable effective power projection and the assertion of Chinese interests across both critical maritime domains.

The decision to formalize an Indian Ocean fleet remains speculative, and due to various political considerations, China may choose not to label it explicitly as a 'fleet'. Nevertheless, assessments based on open-source intelligence, Belt and Road Initiative port projects, and the concerted effort to commission blue-water capable ships suggest that China is preparing the requisite political, logistical, and security framework for such an endeavor. For China, facing a U.S. seen as a strategic competitor, the establishment of a robust naval presence acts as both a countermeasure and a deterrent against any hegemonic aspirations in the region.

Advancing Naval Capabilities and Air Power

The PLAN’s pursuit of a robust fleet of aircraft carriers is a testament to the navy’s strategic vision. Reports suggest China may commission up to six carriers by the mid-2030s for global blue-water operations, with at least a couple of these potentially patrolling the Indian Ocean. It is critical to recognize that Chinese naval operations in East Asia currently benefit from integrated air support, a component not readily available in the vast expanse of the Indian Ocean.

Technological Hurdles in Naval Aviation

Significant advancements in naval aviation mark the PLAN’s progress since the Liaoning's maiden voyage in 2012. Notably, the PLAN’s milestone of achieving night-time landings on carriers in 2018 and its plans to replace the J-15 fighter jet, which is plagued by severe technical limitations including weight issues, signify its evolving capabilities. The J-15's limitations necessitate takeoffs with restricted fuel and ordnance load, constraining its operational efficacy compared to lighter counterparts like the American F-18.

Synergy in Carrier Strike Groups

The true strength of an aircraft carrier lies in its coordinated operations with escort ships, without which it becomes a strategic vulnerability. The complexity of forming an integrated carrier strike group, capable of defending against multifaceted threats, is immense. The PLAN's development of the KJ-600, an early warning aircraft, is a strategic addition, potentially enhancing the combat effectiveness and defensive coverage of its carrier groups.

Assessing Carrier Vulnerabilities

Naval Strategy and the Question of Carrier Vulnerability

Chinese analysts have debated the vulnerability of aircraft carriers, questioning their necessity in the Indian Ocean given China's substantial arsenal of sophisticated anti-ship missiles on both naval and land-based platforms. The debate extends to whether the PLAN’s missile capabilities pose a greater offensive threat compared to the defensive role of a carrier needing constant protection in the vast expanse of the Indian Ocean.

Strategic Value and Limitations of Carriers

The logistical challenges and vastness of the Indian Ocean raise doubts about the practicality of deploying carriers far from conflict zones, considering the time needed for a carrier to respond. Alternative vessels such as frigates and destroyers on mission-based deployments offer broader protection for Chinese interests and provide operational lessons in blue-water logistics and navigation. Yet, without sufficient air cover, PLAN’s ability to engage effectively in significant combat operations is compromised, confining its capabilities to non-combat operations like evacuations unless shore-based air coverage is strategically addressed.

Overseas Bases and Their Inherent Vulnerabilities

While overseas bases contribute to deterrence, advancements in targeting technology have heightened their vulnerability during conflicts, rendering them susceptible to precise attacks. The operational utility of these bases is contingent on the political dynamics with host governments, as access during hostilities often requires explicit host-nation approval, further complicating their strategic reliability.

Strategic Considerations and Future Ambitions

Advancements in technology have provided alternative options for enhancing maritime capabilities, such as long-range aircraft, aerial refueling, and sea-based support, which may reduce the strategic necessity of overseas bases. However, these bases still carry risks, potentially escalating tensions and prompting hegemonic perceptions, a situation Beijing should navigate with caution to align with its stated aim of fostering global peace.

China's engagement with the Indian Ocean has grown significantly, with indications of a desire for a fleet or force capable of asserting its maritime interests. Evidence from port development initiatives and naval acquisitions suggests a move toward a distinct Indian Ocean presence. While full sea control remains unlikely, China is poised to present a credible counter to threats against its sea lines of communication. Yet, the PLAN’s shortfall in air protection and the geopolitical intricacies of base negotiations, coupled with the strengthening security relationship between India and the United States, present the primary challenges to China’s aspirations in the region.

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As the global landscape continues to evolve, a pattern has emerged, one where the expansionist policies of powers such as Russia and China are reminiscent of a playbook used throughout history—military strength as a means to assert dominance. However, this approach often neglects the fundamental principle that sustainable peace is not maintained through shows of force but through the cultivation of shared prosperity.

The analyses presented within these pages suggest a pivotal redirection: moving away from a competitive stance predicated on scarcity, towards fostering an economy of abundance. The goal is to create not just pockets of wealth, but a global society enriched with opportunity, security, and sustainability for all.

In our hands lies the ability to redefine the narrative

thanks for reading!

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Light editing by Xawat

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Travis McCracken 2024-03-24 Travis McCracken 2024-03-24

Götz von Berlichingen mit der eisernen Hand: Ein Schauspiel Author: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Götz von Berlichingen mit der eisernen Hand
Ein Schauspiel

Johann Wolfgang Goethe

Inhalt

Erster Akt
Zweiter Akt
Dritter Akt
Vierter Akt
Fünfter Akt

Personen:

Kaiser Maximilian
Götz von Berlichingen
Elisabeth, seine Frau
Maria, seine Schwester
Karl, sein Söhnchen
Georg, sein Bube
Bischof von Bamberg
Weislingen, Adelheid von Walldorf, Liebetraut an des Bischofs Hofe
Abt von Fulda
Olearius, beider Rechte Doktor
Bruder Martin
Hans von Selbitz
Franz von Sickingen
Lerse
Franz, Weislingens Bube
Kammerfräulein der Adelheid
Metzler, Sievers, Link, Kohl, Wild, Anführer der rebellischen Bauern
Hoffrauen, Hofleute, am Bambergschen Hofe
Kaiserliche Räte
Ratsherrn von Heilbronn
Richter des heimlichen Gerichts
Zwei Nürnberger Kaufleute
Max Stumpf, Pfalzgräflicher Diener
Ein Unbekannter
Brautvater und Bräutigam, Bauern
Berlichingsche, Weislingsche, Bambergsche Reiter
Hauptleute, Offiziere, Knechte von der Reichsarmee
Schenkwirt
Gerichtsdiener
Heilbronner Bürger
Stadtwache
Gefängniswärter
Bauern
Zigeunerhauptmann
Zigeuner, Zigeunerinnen

Erster Akt

I. Akt, Szene 1

Schwarzenberg in Franken Herberge

Metzler, Sievers am Tische. Zwei Reitersknechte beim Feuer. Wirt.

Sievers. Hänsel, noch ein Glas Branntwein, und meß christlich.

Wirt. Du bist der Nimmersatt.

Metzler (leise zu Sievers). Erzähl das noch einmal vom Berlichingen!
Die Bamberger dort ärgern sich, sie möchten schwarz werden.

Sievers. Bamberger? Was tun die hier?

Metzler. Der Weislingen ist oben auf'm Schloß beim Herrn Grafen schon zwei Tage; dem haben sie das Gleit geben. Ich weiß nicht, wo er herkommt; sie warten auf ihn; er geht zurück nach Bamberg.

Sievers. Wer ist der Weislingen?

Metzler. Des Bischofs rechte Hand, ein gewaltiger Herr, der dem Götz auch auf'n Dienst lauert.

Sievers. Er mag sich in acht nehmen.

Metzler (leise). Nur immer zu! (Laut.) Seit wann hat denn der Götz wieder Händel mit dem Bischof von Bamberg? Es hieß ja, alles wäre vertragen und geschlichtet.

Sievers. Ja, vertrag du mit den Pfaffen! Wie der Bischof sah, er richt nichts aus und zieht immer den kürzern, kroch er zum Kreuz und war geschäftig, daß der Vergleich zustand käm. Und der getreuherzige Berlichingen gab unerhört nach, wie er immer tut, wenn er im Vorteil ist.

Metzler. Gott erhalt ihn! Ein rechtschaffener Herr!

Sievers. Nun denk, ist das nicht schändlich? Da werfen sie ihm einen Buben nieder, da er sich nichts weniger versieht. Wird sie aber schon wieder dafür lausen!

Metzler. Es ist doch dumm, daß ihm der letzte Streich mißglückt ist!
Er wird sich garstig erbost haben.

Sievers. Ich glaub nicht, daß ihn lang was so verdrossen hat. Denk auch: alles war aufs genaueste verkundschaft, wann der Bischof aus dem Bad käm, mit wieviel Reitern, welchen Weg; und wenn's nicht wär durch falsche Leut verraten worden, wollt er ihm das Bad gesegnet und ihn ausgerieben haben.

Erster Reiter. Was räsoniert ihr von unserm Bischof? Ich glaub, ihr sucht Händel.

Sievers. Kümmert euch um eure Sachen! Ihr habt an unserm Tisch nichts zu suchen.

Zweiter Reiter. Wer heißt euch von unserm Bischof despektierlich reden?

Sievers. Hab ich euch Red und Antwort zu geben? Seht doch den
Fratzen!

Erster Reiter (schlägt ihn hinter die Ohren).

Metzler. Schlag den Hund tot!

(Sie fallen übereinander her.)

Zweiter Reiter. Komm her, wenn du 's Herz hast.

Wirt (reißt sie voneinander). Wollt ihr Ruh haben! Tausend
Schwerenot! Schert euch 'naus, wenn ihr was auszumachen habt. In
meiner Stub soll's ehrlich und ordentlich zugehen. (Schiebt die
Reiter zur Tür hinaus.) Und ihr Esel, was fanget ihr an?

Metzler. Nur nit viel geschimpft, Hänsel, sonst kommen wir dir über die Glatze. Komm, Kamerad, wollen die draußen bleuen.

(Zwei Berlichingsche Reiter kommen.)

Erster Reiter. Was gibt's da?.

Sievers. Ei guten Tag, Peter! Veit, guten Tag! Woher?

Zweiter Reiter. Daß du dich nit unterstehst zu verraten, wem wir dienen.

Sievers (leise). Da ist euer Herr Götz wohl auch nit weit?

Erster Reiter. Halt dein Maul! Habt ihr Händel?

Sievers. Ihr seid den Kerls begegnet draußen, sind Bamberger.

Erster Reiter. Was tun die hier?

Metzler. Der Weislingen ist droben auf'm Schloß, beim gnädigen Herrn, den haben sie geleit.

Erster Reiter. Der Weislingen?

Zweiter Reiter (leise). Peter! das ist ein gefunden Fressen! (Laut.)
Wie lang ist er da?

Metzler. Schon zwei Tage. Aber er will heut noch fort, hört ich einen von den Kerls sagen.

Erster Reiter (leise). Sagt ich dir nicht, er wär daher! Hätten wir dort drüben eine Weile passen können. Komm, Veit.

Sievers. Helft uns doch erst die Bamberger ausprügeln.

Zweiter Reiter. Ihr seid ja auch zu zwei. Wir müssen fort. Adies!
(Ab.)

Sievers. Lumpenhunde die Reiter! wann man sie nit bezahlt, tun sie dir keinen Streich.

Metzler. Ich wollt schwören, sie haben einen Anschlag. Wem dienen sie?

Sievers. Ich soll's nit sagen. Sie dienen dem Götz.

Metzler. So! Nun wollen wir über die draußen. Komm! so lang ich einen Bengel hab, fürcht ich ihre Bratspieße nicht.

Sievers. Dürften wir nur so einmal an die Fürsten, die uns die Haut über die Ohren ziehen.

Herberge im Wald

Götz (vor der Tür unter der Linde). Wo meine Knechte bleiben! Auf und ab muß ich gehen, sonst übermannt mich der Schlaf. Fünf Tag und Nächte schon auf der Lauer. Es wird einem sauer gemacht, das bißchen Leben und Freiheit. Dafür, wenn ich dich habe, Weislingen, will ich mir's wohl sein lassen. (Schenkt ein.) Wieder leer! Georg! Solang's daran nicht mangelt und an frischem Mut, lach ich der Fürsten Herrschsucht und Ränke.—Georg!—Schickt ihr nur euern gefälligen Weislingen herum zu Vettern und Gevattern, laßt mich anschwärzen. Nur immer zu. Ich bin wach. Du warst mir entwischt, Bischof! So mag denn dein lieber Weislingen die Zeche bezahlen.—Georg! Hört der Junge nicht? Georg! Georg!

Der Bube (im Panzer eines Erwachsenen). Gestrenger Herr!

Götz. Wo stickst du? Hast du geschlafen? Was zum Henker treibst du für Mummerei? Komm her, du siehst gut aus. Schäm dich nicht, Junge. Du bist brav! Ja, wenn du ihn ausfülltest! Es ist Hansens Küraß?

Georg. Er wollt ein wenig schlafen und schnallt' ihn aus.

Götz. Er ist bequemer als sein Herr.

Georg. Zürnt nicht. Ich nahm ihn leise weg und legt ihn an, und holte meines Vaters altes Schwert von der Wand, lief auf die Wiese und zog's aus.

Götz. Und hiebst um dich herum? Da wird's den Hecken und Dornen gutgegangen sein. Schläft Hans?

Georg. Auf Euer Rufen sprang er auf und schrie mir, daß Ihr rieft.
Ich wollt den Harnisch ausschnallen, da hört ich Euch zwei-, dreimal.

Götz. Geh! bring ihm seinen Panzer wieder und sag ihm, er soll bereit sein, soll nach den Pferden sehen.

Georg. Die hab ich recht ausgefüttert und wieder aufgezäumt. Ihr könnt aufsitzen, wann Ihr wollt.

Götz. Bring mir einen Krug Wein, gib Hansen auch ein Glas, sag ihm, er soll munter sein, es gilt. Ich hoffe jeden Augenblick, meine Kundschafter sollen zurückkommen.

Georg. Ach gestrenger Herr!

Götz. Was hast du?

Georg. Darf ich nicht mit?

Götz. Ein andermal, Georg, wann wir Kaufleute fangen und Fuhren wegnehmen.

Georg. Ein andermal, das habt Ihr schon oft gesagt. O diesmal! diesmal! Ich will nur hintendreinlaufen, nur auf der Seite lauern. Ich will Euch die verschossenen Bolzen wiederholen.

Götz. Das nächstemal, Georg. Du sollst erst ein Wams haben, eine
Blechhaube und einen Spieß.

Georg. Nehmt mich mit! Wär ich letzt dabei gewesen, Ihr hättet die
Armbrust nicht verloren.

Götz. Weißt du das?

Georg. Ihr warft sie dem Feind an Kopf, und einer von den Fußknechten hob sie auf; weg war sie! Gelt ich weiß?

Götz. Erzählen dir das meine Knechte?

Georg. Wohl. Dafür pfeif ich ihnen auch, wann wir die Pferde striegeln, allerlei Weisen und lerne sie allerlei lustige Lieder.

Götz. Du bist ein braver Junge.

Georg. Nehmt mich mit, daß ich's zeigen kann!

Götz. Das nächstemal, auf mein Wort. Unbewaffnet wie du bist, sollst du nicht in Streit. Die künftigen Zeiten brauchen auch Männer. Ich sage dir, Knabe, es wird eine teure Zeit werden: Fürsten werden ihre Schätze bieten um einen Mann, den sie jetzt hassen. Geh, Georg, gib Hansen seinen Küraß wieder und bring mir Wein. (Georg ab.) Wo meine Knechte bleiben! Es ist unbegreiflich. Ein Mönch! Wo kommt der noch her?

(Bruder Martin kommt.)

Götz. Ehrwürdiger Vater, guten Abend! woher so spät? Mann der heiligen Ruhe, Ihr beschämt viel Ritter.

Martin. Dank Euch, edler Herr! Und bin vor der Hand nur demütiger Bruder, wenn's ja Titel sein soll. Augustin mit meinem Klosternamen, doch hör ich am liebsten Martin, meinen Taufnamen.

Götz. Ihr seid müde, Bruder Martin, und ohne Zweifel durstig! (Der
Bub kommt.) Da kommt der Wein eben recht.

Martin. Für mich einen Trunk Wasser. Ich darf keinen Wein trinken.

Götz. Ist das Euer Gelübde?

Martin. Nein, gnädiger Herr, es ist nicht wider mein Gelübde, Wein zu trinken; weil aber der Wein wider mein Gelübde ist, so trinke ich keinen Wein.

Götz. Wie versteht Ihr das?

Martin. Wohl Euch, daß Ihr's nicht versteht. Essen und trinken, mein ich, ist des Menschen Leben.

Götz. Wohl!

Martin. Wenn Ihr gegessen und getrunken habt, seid Ihr wie neu geboren; seid stärker, mutiger, geschickter zu Euerm Geschäft. Der Wein erfreut des Menschen Herz, und die Freudigkeit ist die Mutter aller Tugenden. Wenn Ihr Wein getrunken habt, seid Ihr alles doppelt, was Ihr sein sollt, noch einmal so leicht denkend, noch einmal so unternehmend, noch einmal so schnell ausführend.

Götz. Wie ich ihn, trinke, ist es wahr.

Martin. Davon red ich auch. Aber wir-(Georg mit Wasser.)

Götz (zu Georg heimlich). Geh auf den Weg nach Dachsbach, und leg dich mit dem Ohr auf die Erde, ob du nicht Pferde kommen hörst, und sei gleich wieder hier.

Martin. Aber wir, wenn wir gegessen und getrunken haben, sind wir grad das Gegenteil von dem, was wir sein sollen. Unsere schläfrige Verdauung stimmt den Kopf nach dem Magen, und in der Schwäche einer überfüllten Ruhe erzeugen sich Begierden, die ihrer Mutter leicht über den Kopf wachsen.

Götz. Ein Glas, Bruder Martin, wird Euch nicht im Schlaf stören. Ihr seid heute viel gegangen. (Bringt's ihm.) Alle Streiter!

Martin. In Gottes Namen! (Sie stoßen an.) Ich kann die müßigen Leute nicht ausstehen; und doch kann ich nicht sagen, daß alle Mönche müßig sind; sie tun, was sie können. Da komm ich von St. Veit, wo ich die letzte Nacht schlief. Der Prior führte mich in den Garten; das ist nun ihr Bienenkorb. Vortrefflicher Salat! Kohl nach Herzens Lust! und besonders Blumenkohl und Artischocken, wie keine in Europa!

Götz. Das ist also Eure Sache nicht. (Er steht auf, sieht nach dem
Jungen und kommt wieder.)

Martin. Wollte, Gott hätte mich zum Gärtner oder Laboranten gemacht!
Ich könnte glücklich sein. Mein Abt liebt mich, mein Kloster ist
Erfurt in Sachsen; er weiß, ich kann nicht ruhn; da schickt er mich
herum, wo was zu betreiben ist. Ich geh zum Bischof von Konstanz.

Götz. Noch eins! Gute Verrichtung!

Martin. Gleichfalls.

Götz. Was seht Ihr mich so an, Bruder?

Martin. Daß ich in Euern Harnisch verliebt bin.

Götz. Hättet Ihr Lust zu einem? Es ist schwer und beschwerlich ihn zu tragen.

Martin. Was ist nicht beschwerlich auf dieser Welt! und mir kommt nichts beschwerlicher vor, als nicht Mensch sein dürfen. Armut, Keuschheit und Gehorsam—drei Gelübde, deren jedes, einzeln betrachtet, der Natur das Unausstehlichste scheint, so unerträglich sind sie alle. Und sein ganzes Leben unter dieser Last, oder der weit drückendern Bürde des Gewissens mutlos zu keuchen! O Herr! was sind die Mühseligkeiten Eures Lebens, gegen die Jämmerlichkeiten eines Standes, der die besten Triebe, durch die wir werden, wachsen und gedeihen, aus mißverstandener Begierde Gott näher zu rücken, verdammt?

Götz. Wär Euer Gelübde nicht so heilig, ich wollte Euch bereden, einen Harnisch anzulegen, wollt Euch ein Pferd geben, und wir zögen miteinander.

Martin. Wollte Gott, meine Schultern fühlten Kraft, den Harnisch zu ertragen, und mein Arm Stärke, einen Feind vom Pferd zu stechen!—Arme schwache Hand, von jeher gewohnt, Kreuze und Friedensfahnen zu führen und Rauchfässer zu schwingen, wie wolltest du Lanze und Schwert regieren! Meine Stimme, nur zu Ave und Halleluja gestimmt, würde dem Feind ein Herold meiner Schwäche sein, wenn ihn die Eurige überwältigte. Kein Gelübde sollte mich abhalten wieder in den Orden zu treten, den mein Schöpfer selbst gestiftet hat!

Götz. Glückliche Wiederkehr!

Martin. Das trinke ich nur für Euch. Wiederkehr in meinen Käfig ist allemal unglücklich. Wenn Ihr wiederkehrt, Herr, in Eure Mauern, mit dem Bewußtsein Eurer Tapferkeit und Stärke, der keine Müdigkeit etwas anhaben kann, Euch zum erstenmal nach langer Zeit, sicher vor feindlichem überfall, entwaffnet auf Euer Bette streckt und Euch nach dem Schlaf dehnt, der Euch besser schmeckt als mir der Trunk nach langem Durst: da könnt Ihr von Glück sagen!

Götz. Dafür kommt's auch selten.

Martin (feuriger). Und ist, wenn's kommt, ein Vorschmack des Himmels. —Wenn Ihr zurückkehrt, mit der Beute Eurer Feinde beladen, und Euch erinnert: den stach ich vom Pferd, eh er schießen konnte, und den rannt ich samt dem Pferde nieder, und dann reitet Ihr zu Euerm Schloß hinauf, und-Götz. Was meint Ihr?

Martin. Und Eure Weiber! (Er schenkt ein.) Auf Gesundheit Eurer Frau!
(Er wischt sich die Augen.) Ihr habt doch eine?

Götz. Ein edles vortreffliches Weib!

Martin. Wohl dem, der ein tugendsam Weib hat! des lebt er noch eins so lange. Ich kenne keine Weiber, und doch war die Frau die Krone der Schöpfung!

Götz (vor sich). Er dauert mich! Das Gefühl seines Standes frißt ihm das Herz.

Georg (gesprungen). Herr! ich höre Pferde im Galopp! Zwei! Es sind sie gewiß.

Götz. Führ mein Pferd heraus! Hans soll aufsitzen.—Lebt wohl, teurer Bruder, Gott geleit Euch! Seid mutig und geduldig. Gott wird Euch Raum geben.

Martin. Ich bitt um Euern Namen.

Götz. Verzeiht mir. Lebt wohl! (Er reicht ihm die linke Hand.)

Martin. Warum reicht Ihr mir die Linke? Bin ich die ritterliche
Rechte nicht wert?

Götz. Und wenn Ihr der Kaiser wärt, Ihr müßtet mit dieser vorliebnehmen. Meine Rechte, obgleich im Kriege nicht unbrauchbar, ist gegen den Druck der Liebe unempfindlich: sie ist eins mit ihrem Handschuh; Ihr seht, er ist Eisen.

Martin. So seid Ihr Götz von Berlichingen! Ich danke dir, Gott, daß du mich ihn hast sehen lassen, diesen Mann, den die Fürsten hassen und zu dem die Bedrängten sich wenden! (Er nimmt ihm die rechte Hand.) Laßt mir diese Hand, laßt mich sie küssen!

Götz. Ihr sollt nicht.

Martin. Laßt mich! Du, mehr wert als Reliquienhand, durch die das heiligste Blut geflossen ist, totes Werkzeug, belebt durch des edelsten Geistes Vertrauen auf Gott!

Götz (setzt den Helm auf und nimmt die Lanze).

Martin. Es war ein Mönch bei uns vor Jahr und Tag, der Euch besuchte, wie sie Euch abgeschossen ward vor Landshut. Wie er uns erzählte, was Ihr littet, und wie sehr es Euch schmerzte, zu Eurem Beruf verstümmelt zu sein, und wie Euch einfiel, von einem gehört zu haben, der auch nur eine Hand hatte und als tapferer Reitersmann doch noch lange diente—ich werde das nie vergessen.

(Die zwei Knechte kommen.)

Götz (zu ihnen. Sie reden heimlich).

Martin (fährt inzwischen fort). Ich werde das nie vergessen, wie er im edelsten einfältigsten Vertrauen auf Gott sprach: "Und wenn ich zwölf Händ hätte und deine Gnad wollt mir nicht, was würden sie mir fruchten? So kann ich mit einer"-Götz. In den Haslacher Wald also. (Kehrt sich zu Martin.) Lebt wohl, werter Bruder Martin. (Küßt ihn.)

Martin. Vergeßt mich nicht, wie ich Euer nicht vergesse.

(Götz ab.)

Martin. Wie mir's so eng ums Herz ward, da ich ihn sah. Er redete nichts, und mein Geist konnte doch den seinigen unterscheiden. Es ist eine Wollust, einen großen Mann zu sehn.

Georg. Ehrwürdiger Herr, Ihr schlaft doch bei uns?

Martin. Kann ich ein Bett haben?

Georg. Nein, Herr! ich kenne Betten nur vom Hörensagen, in unsrer
Herberg ist nichts als Stroh.

Martin. Auch gut. Wie heißt du?

Georg. Georg, ehrwürdiger Herr!

Martin. Georg! da hast du einen tapfern Patron.

Georg. Sie sagen, er sei ein Reiter gewesen; das will ich auch sein.

Martin. Warte! (Zieht ein Gebetbuch hervor und gibt dem Buben einen Heiligen.) Da hast du ihn. Folge seinem Beispiel, sei brav und fürchte Gott! (Martin geht.)

Georg. Ach ein schöner Schimmel! wenn ich einmal so einen hätte!—und die goldene Rüstung!—Das ist ein garstiger Drach—Jetzt schieß ich nach Sperlingen—Heiliger Georg! mach mich groß und stark, gib mir so eine Lanze, Rüstung und Pferd, dann laß mir die Drachen kommen!

I. Akt, Szene 2

Jagsthausen. Götzens Burg

Elisabeth. Maria. Karl, sein Söhnchen.

Karl. Ich bitte dich, liebe Tante, erzähl mir das noch einmal vom frommen Kind, 's is gar zu schön.

Maria. Erzähl du mir's, kleiner Schelm, da will ich hören, ob du achtgibst.

Karl. Wart e bis, ich will mich bedenken.—Es war einmal—ja—es war einmal ein Kind, und sein Mutter war krank, da ging das Kind hin-Maria. Nicht doch. Da sagte die Mutter: "Liebes Kind"-Karl. "Ich bin krank"-Maria. "Und kann nicht ausgehn"-Karl. Und gab ihm Geld und sagte. "Geh hin, und hol dir ein Frühstück." Da kam ein armer Mann-Maria. Das Kind ging, da begegnet' ihm ein alter Mann, der war—nun Karl!

Karl. Der war—alt-Maria. Freilich! der kaum mehr gehen konnte, und sagte. "Liebes Kind"-Karl. "Schenk mir was, ich habe kein Brot gessen gestern und heut." Da gab ihm 's Kind das Geld-Maria. Das für sein Frühstück sein sollte.

Karl. Da sagte der alte Mann-Maria. Da nahm der alte Mann das Kind-Karl. Bei der Hand, und sagte—und ward ein schöner glänzender Heiliger, und sagte:—"Liebes Kind"-Maria. "Für deine Wohltätigkeit belohnt dich die Mutter Gottes durch mich: welchen Kranken du an rührst"-Karl. "Mit der Hand"—es war die rechte, glaub ich.

Maria. Ja.

Karl. "Der wird gleich gesund."

Maria. Da lief das Kind nach Haus und konnt für Freuden nichts reden.

Karl. Und fiel seiner Mutter um den Hals und weinte für Freuden-Maria.
Da rief die Mutter: "Wie ist mir!" und war—nun Karl!

Karl. Und war—und war-Maria. Du gibst schon nicht acht!—und war gesund. Und das Kind kurierte König und Kaiser, und wurde so reich, daß es ein großes Kloster bauete.

Elisabeth. Ich kann nicht begreifen, wo mein Herr bleibt. Schon fünf Tag und Nächte, daß er weg ist, und er hoffte so bald seinen Streich auszuführen.

Maria. Mich ängstigt's lang. Wenn ich so einen Mann haben sollte, der sich immer Gefahren aussetzte, ich stürbe im ersten Jahr.

Elisabeth. Dafür dank ich Gott, daß er mich härter zusammengesetzt hat.

Karl. Aber muß dann der Vater ausreiten, wenn's so gefährlich ist?

Maria. Es ist sein guter Wille so.

Elisabeth. Wohl muß er, lieber Karl.

Karl. Warum?

Elisabeth. Weißt du noch, wie er das letztemal ausritt, da er dir
Weck mitbrachte?

Karl. Bringt er mir wieder mit?

Elisabeth. Ich glaub wohl. Siehst du, da war ein Schneider von Stuttgart, der war ein trefflicher Bogenschütz, und hatte zu Köln auf'm Schießen das Beste gewonnen.

Karl. War's viel?

Elisabeth. Hundert Taler. Und darnach wollten sie's ihm nicht geben.

Maria. Gelt, das ist garstig, Karl?

Karl. Garstige Leut!

Elisabeth. Da kam der Schneider zu deinem Vater und bat ihn, er
möchte ihm zu seinem Geld verhelfen. Und da ritt er aus und nahm den
Kölnern ein paar Kaufleute weg, und plagte sie so lang, bis sie das
Geld herausgaben. Wärst du nicht auch ausgeritten?

Karl. Nein! da muß man durch einen dicken, dicken Wald, sind Zigeuner und Hexen drin.

Elisabeth. Ist ein rechter Bursch, fürcht sich vor Hexen!

Maria. Du tust besser, Karl! leb du einmal auf deinem Schloß als ein
frommer christlicher Ritter. Auf seinen eigenen Gütern findet man zum
Wohltun Gelegenheit genug. Die rechtschaffensten Ritter begehen mehr
Ungerechtigkeit als Gerechtigkeit auf ihren Zügen.

Elisabeth. Schwester, du weißt nicht, was du redst. Gebe nur Gott, daß unser Junge mit der Zeit braver wird, und dem Weislingen nicht nachschlägt, der so treulos an meinem Mann handelt.

Maria. Wir wollen nicht richten, Elisabeth. Mein Bruder ist sehr erbittert, du auch. Ich bin bei der ganzen Sache mehr Zuschauer, und kann billiger sein.

Elisabeth. Er ist nicht zu entschuldigen.

Maria. Was ich von ihm gehört, hat mich eingenommen. Erzählte nicht selbst dein Mann so viel Liebes und Gutes von ihm! Wie glücklich war ihre Jugend, als sie zusammen Edelknaben des Markgrafen waren!

Elisabeth. Das mag sein. Nur sag, was kann der Mensch je Gutes gehabt haben, der seinem besten treusten Freunde nachstellt, seine Dienste den Feinden meines Mannes verkauft, und unsern trefflichen Kaiser der uns so gnädig ist, mit falschen widrigen Vorstellungen einzunehmen sucht.

Karl. Der Vater! der Vater! Der Türner bläst 's Liedel: "Heisa, mach 's Tor auf."

Elisabeth. Da kommt er mit Beute.

(Ein Reiter kommt.)

Reiter. Wir haben, gejagt! wir haben gefangen! Gott grüß Euch, edle
Frauen.

Elisabeth. Habt ihr den Weislingen?

Reiter. Ihn und drei Reiter.

Elisabeth. Wie ging's zu, daß ihr so lang ausbleibt?

Reiter. Wir lauerten auf ihn zwischen Nürnberg und Bamberg, er wollte nicht kommen, und wir wußten doch, er war auf dem Wege. Endlich kundschaften wir ihn aus: er war seitwärts gezogen, und saß geruhig beim Grafen auf dem Schwarzenberg.

Elisabeth. Den möchten sie auch gern meinem Mann feind haben.

Reiter. Ich sagt's gleich dem Herrn. Auf! und wir ritten in Haslacher Wald. Und da war's kurios: wie wir so in die Nacht reiten, hüt just ein Schäfer da, und fallen fünf Wölf in die Herd und packten weidlich an. Da lachte unser Herr und sagte: "Glück zu, liebe Gesellen! Glück überall und uns auch!" Und es freuet' uns all das gute Zeichen. Indem so kommt der Weislingen hergeritten mit vier Knechten.

Maria. Das Herz zittert mir im Leibe.

Reiter. Ich und mein Kamerad, wie's der Herr befohlen hatte, nistelten uns an ihn, als wären wir zusammengewachsen, daß er sich nicht regen noch rühren konnte, und der Herr und der Hans fielen über die Knechte her und nahmen sie in Pflicht. Einer ist entwischt.

Elisabeth. Ich bin neugierig, ihn zu sehn. Kommen sie bald?

Reiter. Sie reiten das Tal herauf, in einer Viertelstund sind sie hier.

Maria. Er wird niedergeschlagen sein.

Reiter. Finster genug sieht er aus.

Maria. Sein Anblick wird mir im Herzen weh tun.

Elisabeth. Ah!—Ich will gleich das Essen zurecht machen. Hungrig werdet ihr doch alle sein.

Reiter. Rechtschaffen.

Elisabeth. Nimm den Kellerschlüssel und hol vom besten Wein! Sie haben ihn verdient. (Ab.)

Karl. Ich will mit, Tante.

Maria. Komm, Bursch. (Ab.)

Reiter. Der wird nicht sein Vater, sonst ging' er mit in Stall!

(Götz. Weislingen. Reitersknechte.)

Götz (Helm und Schwert auf den Tisch legend). Schnallt mir den Harnisch auf, und gebt mir mein Wams. Die Bequemlichkeit wird mir wohl tun. Bruder Martin, du sagtest recht—Ihr habt uns in Atem erhalten, Weislingen.

Weislingen (antwortet nichts, auf und ab gehend).

Götz. Seid gutes Muts. Kommt, entwaffnet Euch. Wo sind Eure
Kleider? Ich hoffe, es soll nichts verlorengegangen sein. (Zum
Knecht.) Frag seine Knechte, und öffnet das Gepäcke, und seht zu, daß
nichts abhanden komme. Ich könnt Euch auch von den meinigen borgen.

Weislingen. Laßt mich so, es ist all eins.

Götz. Könnt Euch ein hübsches saubres Kleid geben, ist zwar nur leinen. Mir ist's zu eng worden. Ich hatt's auf der Hochzeit meines gnädigen Herrn des Pfalzgrafen an, eben damals, als Euer Bischof so giftig über mich wurde. Ich hatt' ihm, vierzehn Tag vorher, zwei Schiff auf dem Main niedergeworfen. Und ich geh mit Franzen von Sickingen im Wirtshaus zum Hirsch in Heidelberg die Trepp hinauf. Eh man noch ganz droben ist, ist ein Absatz und ein eisen Geländerlein, da stund der Bischof und gab Franzen die Hand, wie er vorbeiging, und gab sie mir auch, wie ich hintendrein kam. Ich lacht in meinem Herzen, und ging zum Landgrafen von Hanau, der mir gar ein lieber Herr war, und sagte: "Der Bischof hat mir die Hand geben, ich wett, er hat mich nicht gekannt." Das hört' der Bischof, denn ich red't laut mit Fleiß, und kam zu uns trotzig—und sagte: "Wohl, weil ich Euch nicht kannt hab, gab ich Euch die Hand." Da sagt ich: "Herre, ich merkt's wohl, daß Ihr mich nicht kanntet, und hiermit habt Ihr Eure Hand wieder." Da ward das Männlein so rot am Hals wie ein Krebs vor Zorn und lief in die Stube zu Pfalzgraf Ludwig und dem Fürsten von Nassau und klagt's ihnen. Wir haben nachher uns oft was drüber zugute getan.

Weislingen. Ich wollt, Ihr ließt mich allein.

Götz. Warum das? Ich bitt Euch, seid aufgeräumt. Ihr seid in meiner
Gewalt, und ich werd sie nicht mißbrauchen.

Weislingen. Dafür war mir's noch nicht bange. Das ist Eure
Ritterpflicht.

Götz. Und Ihr wißt, daß die mir heilig ist.

Weislingen. Ich bin gefangen; das übrige ist eins.

Götz. Ihr solltet nicht so reden. Wenn Ihr's mit Fürsten zu tun hättet, und sie Euch in tiefen Turn an Ketten aufhingen, und der Wächter Euch den Schlaf wegpfeifen müßte!

(Die Knechte mit den Kleidern.)

Weislingen (zieht sich aus und an).

(Karl kommt.)

Karl. Guten Morgen, Vater!

Götz (küßt ihn). Guten Morgen, Junge. Wie habt ihr die Zeit gelebt?

Karl. Recht geschickt, Vater! Die Tante sagt: ich sei recht geschickt.

Götz. So!

Karl. Hast du mir was mitgebracht?

Götz. Diesmal nicht.

Karl. Ich hab viel gelernt.

Götz. Ei!

Karl. Soll ich dir vom frommen Kind erzählen?

Götz. Nach Tische.

Karl. Ich weiß noch was.

Götz. Was wird das sein?

Karl. Jagsthausen ist ein Dorf und Schloß an der Jagst, gehört seit zweihundert Jahren den Herrn von Berlichingen erb- und eigentümlich zu.

Götz. Kennst du den Herrn von Berlichingen?

Karl (sieht ihn starr an).

Götz (vor sich). Er kennt wohl vor lauter Gelehrsamkeit seinen Vater nicht.—Wem gehört Jagsthausen?

Karl. Jagsthausen ist ein Dorf und Schloß an der Jagst.

Götz. Das frag ich nicht.—Ich kannte alle Pfade, Weg und Furten, eh ich wußte, wie Fluß, Dorf und Burg hieß.—Die Mutter ist in der Küche?

Karl. Ja, Vater! Sie kocht weiße Rüben und ein Lammsbraten.

Götz. Weißt du's auch, Hans Küchenmeister?

Karl. Und für mich zum Nachtisch hat die Tante einen Apfel gebraten.

Götz. Kannst du sie nicht roh essen?

Karl. Schmeckt so besser.

Götz. Du mußt immer was Apartes haben.—Weislingen! ich bin gleich wieder bei Euch. Ich muß meine Frau doch sehn. Komm mit, Karl.

Karl. Wer ist der Mann?

Götz. Grüß ihn. Bitt ihn, er soll lustig sein.

Karl. Da, Mann! hast du eine Hand, sei lustig, das Essen ist bald fertig.

Weislingen (hebt ihn in die Höh und küßt ihn). Glückliches Kind! das kein übel kennt, als wenn die Suppe lang ausbleibt. Gott laß Euch viel Freud am Knaben erleben, Berlichingen.

Götz. Wo viel Licht ist, ist starker Schatten—doch wär mir's willkommen. Wollen sehn, was es gibt.

(Sie gehn.)

I. Akt, Szene 3

Weislingen. O daß ich aufwachte! und das alles wäre ein Traum! In Berlichingens Gewalt! von dem ich mich kaum losgearbeitet habe, dessen Andenken ich mied wie Feuer, den ich hoffte zu überwältigen! Und er—der alte treuherzige Götz! Heiliger Gott, was will, will aus dem allen werden? Rückgeführt, Adelbert, in den Saal! wo wir als Buben unsere Jagd trieben—da du ihn liebtest, an ihm hingst wie an deiner Seele. Wer kann ihm nahen und ihn hassen? Ach! ich bin so ganz nichts hier! Glückselige Zeiten, ihr seid vorbei, da noch der alte Berlichingen hier am Kamin saß, da wir um ihn durcheinander spielten und uns liebten wie die Engel. Wie wird sich der Bischof ängstigen, und meine Freunde. Ich weiß, das ganze Land nimmt teil an meinem Unfall. Was ist's! Können sie mir geben, wornach ich strebe?

Götz (mit einer Flasche Wein und Becher). Bis das Essen fertig wird, wollen wir eins trinken. Kommt, setzt Euch, tut, als wenn Ihr zu Hause wärt! Denkt, Ihr seid einmal wieder beim Götz. Haben doch lange nicht beisammengesessen, lang keine Flasche miteinander ausgestochen. (Bringt's ihm.) Ein fröhlich Herz!

Weislingen. Die Zeiten sind vorbei.

Götz. Behüte Gott! Zwar vergnügtere Tage werden wir wohl nicht wieder finden als an des Markgrafen Hof, da wir noch beisammenschliefen und miteinander umherzogen. Ich erinnere mich mit Freuden meiner Jugend. Wißt Ihr noch, wie ich mit dem Polacken Händel kriegte, dem ich sein gepicht und gekräuselt Haar von ungefähr mit dem ärmel verwischt?

Weislingen. Es war bei Tische, und er stach nach Euch mit dem Messer.

Götz. Den schlug ich wacker aus dazumal, und darüber wurdet Ihr mit seinem Kameraden zu Unfried. Wir hielten immer redlich zusammen als gute brave Jungen, dafür erkennte uns auch jedermann. (Schenkt ein und bringt's.) Kastor und Pollux! Mir tat's immer im Herzen wohl, wenn uns der Markgraf so nannte.

Weislingen. Der Bischof von Würzburg hatte es aufgebracht.

Götz. Das war ein gelehrter Herr, und dabei so leutselig. Ich
erinnere mich seiner, so lange ich lebe, wie er uns liebkoste, unsere
Eintracht lobte und den Menschen glücklich pries, der ein
Zwillingsbruder seines Freundes wäre.

Weislingen. Nichts mehr davon!

Götz. Warum nicht? Nach der Arbeit wüßt ich nichts Angenehmers, als mich des Vergangenen zu erinnern. Freilich, wenn ich wieder so bedenke, wie wir Liebs und Leids zusammen trugen, einander alles waren, und wie ich damals wähnte, so sollt's unser ganzes Leben sein! War das nicht all mein Trost,, wie mir diese Hand weggeschossen ward vor Landshut, und du mein pflegtest und mehr als Bruder für mich sorgtest? Ich hoffte, Adelbert wird künftig meine rechte Hand sein. Und nun-Weislingen. Oh!

Götz. Wenn du mir damals gefolgt hättest, da ich dir anlag, mit nach Brabant zu ziehen, es wäre alles gut geblieben. Da hielt dich das unglückliche Hofleben und das Schlenzen und Scherwenzen mit den Weibern. Ich sagt es dir immer, wenn du dich mit den eiteln garstigen Vetteln abgabst und ihnen erzähltest von mißvergnügten Ehen, verführten Mädchen, der rauhen Haut einer Dritten, oder was sie sonst gerne hören: "Du wirst ein Spitzbub", sagt ich, "Adelbert."

Weislingen. Wozu soll das alles?

Götz. Wollte Gott, ich könnt's vergessen, oder es wär anders! Bist du nicht ebenso frei, so edel geboren als einer in Deutschland, unabhängig, nur dem Kaiser untertan, und du schmiegst dich unter Vasallen? Was hast du von dem Bischof? Weil er dein Nachbar ist? dich necken könnte? Hast du nicht Arme und Freunde, ihn wieder zu necken? Verkennst den Wert eines freien Rittersmanns, der nur abhängt von Gott, seinem Kaiser und sich selbst! Verkriechst dich zum ersten Hofschranzen eines eigensinnigen neidischen Pfaffen!

Weislingen. Laßt mich reden.

Götz. Was hast du zu sagen?

Weislingen. Du siehst die Fürsten an, wie der Wolf den Hirten. Und doch, darfst du sie schelten, daß sie ihrer Leut und Länder Bestes wahren? Sind sie denn einen Augenblick vor den ungerechten Rittern sicher, die ihre Untertanen auf allen Straßen anfallen, ihre Dörfer und Schlösser verheeren? Wenn nun auf der andern Seite unsers teuern Kaisers Länder der Gewalt des Erbfeindes ausgesetzt sind, er von den Ständen Hülfe begehrt, und sie sich kaum ihres Lebens erwehren: ist's nicht ein guter Geist, der ihnen einrät, auf Mittel zu denken, Deutschland zu beruhigen, Recht und Gerechtigkeit zu handhaben, um einen jeden, Großen und Kleinen, die Vorteile des Friedens genießen zu machen? Und uns verdenkst du's, Berlichingen, daß wir uns in ihren Schutz begeben, deren Hülfe uns nah ist, statt daß die entfernte Majestät sich selbst nicht beschützen kann.

Götz. Ja! ja! Ich versteh! Weislingen, wären die Fürsten, wie Ihr sie schildert, wir hätten alle, was wir begehren. Ruh und Frieden! Ich glaub's wohl! Den wünscht jeder Raubvogel, die Beute nach Bequemlichkeit zu verzehren. Wohlsein eines jeden! Daß sie sich nur darum graue Haare wachsen ließen! Und mit unserm Kaiser spielen sie auf eine unanständige Art. Er meint's gut und möcht gern bessern. Da kommt denn alle Tage ein neuer Pfannenflicker und meint so und so. Und weil der Herr geschwind etwas begreift, und nur reden darf, um tausend Hände in Bewegung zu setzen, so denkt er, es wär auch alles so geschwind und leicht ausgeführt. Nun ergehn Verordnungen über Verordnungen, und wird eine über die andere vergessen; und was den Fürsten in ihren Kram dient, da sind sie hinterher, und gloriieren von Ruh und Sicherheit des Reichs, bis sie die Kleinen unterm Fuß haben. Ich will darauf schwören, es dankt mancher in seinem Herzen Gott, daß der Türk dem Kaiser die Waage hält.

Weislingen. Ihr seht's von Eurer Seite.

Götz. Das tut jeder. Es ist die Frage, auf welcher Licht und Recht ist, und eure Gänge scheuen wenigstens den Tag.

Weislingen. Ihr dürft reden, ich bin der Gefangne.

Götz. Wenn Euer Gewissen rein ist, so seid Ihr frei. Aber wie war's um den Landfrieden? Ich weiß noch, als ein Bub von sechzehn Jahren war ich mit dem Markgrafen auf dem Reichstag. Was die Fürsten da für weite Mäuler machten, und die Geistlichen am ärgsten. Euer Bischof lärmte dem Kaiser die Ohren voll, als wenn ihm wunder wie! die Gerechtigkeit ans Herz gewachsen wäre; und jetzt wirft er mir selbst einen Buben nieder, zur Zeit da unsere Händel vertragen sind, ich an nichts Böses denke. Ist nicht alles zwischen uns geschlichtet? Was hat er mit dem Buben?

Weislingen. Es geschah ohne sein Wissen.

Götz. Warum gibt er ihn nicht wieder los?

Weislingen. Er hat sich nicht aufgeführt, wie er sollte.

Götz. Nicht wie er sollte? Bei meinem Eid, er hat getan, wie er sollte, so gewiß er mit Eurer und des Bischofs Kundschaft gefangen ist. Meint Ihr, ich komm erst heut auf die Welt, daß ich nicht sehen soll, wo alles hinaus will?

Weislingen. Ihr seid argwöhnisch und tut uns unrecht.

Götz. Weislingen, soll ich von der Leber weg reden? Ich bin euch ein Dorn in den Augen, so klein ich bin, und der Sickingen und Selbitz nicht weniger, weil wir fest entschlossen sind, zu sterben eh, als jemanden die Luft zu verdanken, außer Gott, und unsere Treu und Dienst zu leisten, als dem Kaiser. Da ziehen sie nun um mich herum, verschwärzen mich bei Ihro Majestät und ihren Freunden und meinen Nachbarn, und spionieren nach Vorteil über mich. Aus dem Wege wollen sie mich haben, wie's wäre. Darum nahmt ihr meinen Buben gefangen, weil ihr wußtet, ich hatt' ihn auf Kundschaft ausgeschickt; und darum tat er nicht, was er sollte, weil er mich nicht an euch verriet. Und du, Weislingen, bist ihr Werkzeug!

Weislingen. Berlichingen!

Götz. Kein Wort mehr davon! Ich bin ein Feind von Explikationen; man betriegt sich oder den andern, und meist beide.

Karl. Zu Tisch, Vater.

Götz. Fröhliche Botschaft!—Kommt! ich hoffe, meine Weibsleute sollen Euch munter machen. Ihr wart sonst ein Liebhaber, die Fräulein wußten von Euch zu erzählen. Kommt! (Ab.)

Im bischöflichen Palaste zu Bamberg Der Speisesaal

Bischof von Bamberg. Abt von Fulda. Olearius. Liebetraut. Hofleute.
An Tafel. Der Nachtisch und die großen Pokale werden aufgetragen.

Bischof. Studieren jetzt viele Deutsche von Adel zu Bologna?

Olearius. Vom Adel- und Bürgerstande. Und ohne Ruhm zu melden, tragen sie das größte Lob davon. Man pflegt im Sprichwort auf der Akademie zu sagen: "So fleißig wie ein Deutscher von Adel." Denn indem die Bürgerlichen einen rühmlichen Fleiß anwenden, durch Talente den Mangel der Geburt zu ersetzen, so bestreben sich jene, mit rühmlicher Wetteiferung, ihre angeborne Würde durch die glänzendsten Verdienste zu erhöhen.

Abt. Ei!

Liebetraut. Sag einer, was man, nicht erlebet. So fleißig wie ein
Deutscher von Adel! Das hab ich mein Tage nicht gehört.

Olearius. Ja, sie sind die Bewunderung der ganzen Akademie. Es
werden ehestens einige von den ältesten und geschicktesten als
Doktores zurückkommen. Der Kaiser wird glücklich sein, die ersten
Stellen damit besetzen zu können.

Bischof. Das kann nicht fehlen.

Abt. Kennen Sie nicht zum Exempel einen Junker?—Er ist aus
Hessen-Olearius. Es sind viel Hessen da.

Abt. Er heißt—er ist—Weiß es keiner von euch?—Seine Mutter war eine von—Oh! Sein Vater hatte nur ein Aug—und war Marschall.

Liebetraut. Von Wildenholz?

Abt. Recht—von Wildenholz.

Olearius. Den kenn ich wohl, ein junger Herr von vielen Fähigkeiten.
Besonders rühmt man ihn wegen seiner Stärke im Disputieren.

Abt. Das hat er von seiner Mutter.

Liebetraut. Nur wollte sie ihr Mann niemals drum rühmen.

Bischof. Wie sagtet Ihr, daß der Kaiser hieß, der Euer "Corpus Juris" geschrieben hat?

Olearius. Justinianus.

Bischof. Ein trefflicher Herr! er soll leben!

Olearius. Sein Andenken!

(Sie trinken.)

Abt. Es mag ein schön Buch sein.

Olearius. Man möcht's wohl ein Buch aller Bücher nennen; eine Sammlung aller Gesetze; bei jedem Fall der Urteilsspruch bereit; und was ja noch abgängig oder dunkel wäre, ersetzen die Glossen, womit die gelehrtesten Männer das vortrefflichste Werk geschmückt haben.

Abt. Eine Sammlung aller Gesetze! Potz! Da müssen wohl auch die
Zehn Gebote drin sein.

Olearius. Implicite wohl, nicht explicite.

Abt. Das mein ich auch, an und vor sich, ohne weitere Explikation.

Bischof. Und was das Schönste ist, so könnte, wie Ihr sagt, ein Reich in sicherster Ruhe und Frieden leben, wo es völlig eingeführt und recht gehandhabt würde.

Olearius. Ohne Frage.

Bischof. Alle Doctores Juris!

Olearius. Ich werd's zu rühmen wissen. (Sie trinken.) Wollte Gott, man spräche so in meinem Vaterlande!

Abt. Wo seid Ihr her, hochgelahrter Herr?

Olearius. Von Frankfurt am Main, Ihro Eminenz zu dienen.

Bischof. Steht ihr Herrn da nicht wohl angeschrieben? Wie kommt das?

Olearius. Sonderbar genug. Ich war da, meines Vaters Erbschaft abzuholen; der Pöbel hätte mich fast gesteinigt, wie er hörte, ich sei ein Jurist.

Abt. Behüte Gott!

Olearius. Aber das kommt daher: Der Schöppenstuhl, der in großem Ansehn weit umher steht, ist mit lauter Leuten besetzt, die der Römischen Rechte unkundig sind. Man glaubt, es sei genug, durch Alter und Erfahrung sich eine genaue Kenntnis des innern und äußern Zustandes der Stadt zu erwerben. So werden, nach altem Herkommen und wenigen Statuten, die Bürger und die Nachbarschaft gerichtet.

Abt. Das ist wohl gut.

Olearius. Aber lange nicht genug. Der Menschen Leben ist kurz, und in einer Generation kommen nicht alle Kasus vor. Eine Sammlung solcher Fälle von vielen Jahrhunderten ist unser Gesetzbuch. Und dann ist der Wille und die Meinung der Menschen schwankend; dem deucht heute das recht, was der andere morgen mißbilliget; und so ist Verwirrung und Ungerechtigkeit unvermeidlich. Das alles bestimmen die Gesetze; und die Gesetze sind unveränderlich.

Abt. Das ist freilich besser.

Olearius. Das erkennt der Pöbel nicht, der, so gierig er auf
Neuigkeiten ist, das Neue höchst verabscheuet, das ihn aus seinem
Gleise leiten will, und wenn er sich noch so sehr dadurch verbessert.
Sie halten den Juristen so arg, als einen Verwirrer des Staats, einen
Beutelschneider, und sind wie rasend, wenn einer dort sich
niederzulassen gedenkt.

Liebetraut. Ihr seid von Frankfurt! Ich bin wohl da bekannt. Bei Kaiser Maximilians Krönung haben wir Euern Bräutigams was vorgeschmaust. Euer Name ist Olearius? Ich kenne so niemanden.

Olearius. Mein Vater hieß öhlmann. Nur, den Mißstand auf dem Titel meiner lateinischen Schriften zu vermeiden, nenn ich mich, nach dem Beispiel und auf Anraten würdiger Rechtslehrer, Olearius.

Liebetraut. Ihr tatet wohl, daß Ihr Euch übersetztet. Ein Prophet gilt nichts in seinem Vaterlande, es hätt' Euch in Eurer Muttersprache auch so gehen können.

Olearius. Es war nicht darum.

Liebetraut. Alle Dinge haben ein paar Ursachen.

Abt. Ein Prophet gilt nichts in seinem Vaterlande!

Liebetraut. Wißt Ihr auch warum, hochwürdiger Herr?

Abt. Weil er da geboren und erzogen ist.

Liebetraut. Wohl! Das mag die eine Ursache sein. Die andere ist:
Weil, bei einer näheren Bekanntschaft mit den Herrn, der Nimbus von
Ehrwürdigkeit und Heiligkeit wegschwindet, den uns eine neblichte
Ferne um sie herumlügt; und dann sind sie ganz kleine Stümpfchen
Unschlitt.

Olearius. Es scheint, Ihr seid dazu bestellt, Wahrheiten, zu sagen.

Liebetraut. Weil ich 's Herz dazu hab, so fehlt mir's nicht am Maul.

Olearius. Aber doch an Geschicklichkeit, sie wohl anzubringen.

Liebetraut. Schröpfköpfe sind wohl angebracht, wo sie ziehen.

Olearius. Bader erkennt man an der Schürze und nimmt in ihrem Amte ihnen nichts übel. Zur Vorsorge tätet Ihr wohl, wenn Ihr eine Schellenkappe trügt.

Liebetraut. Wo habt Ihr promoviert? Es ist nur zur Nachfrage, wenn mir einmal der Einfall käme, daß ich gleich vor die rechte Schmiede ginge.

Olearius. Ihr seid verwegen.

Liebetraut. Und Ihr sehr breit.

(Bischof und Abt lachen.)

Bischof. Von was anders!—Nicht so hitzig, ihr Herrn. Bei Tisch geht alles drein—Einen andern Diskurs, Liebetraut!

Liebetraut. Gegen Frankfurt liegt ein Ding über, heißt
Sachsenhausen-Olearius (zum Bischof). Was spricht man vom Türkenzug,
Ihro Fürstliche Gnaden?

Bischof. Der Kaiser hat nichts Angelegners, als vorerst das Reich zu beruhigen, die Fehden abzuschaffen und das Ansehn der Gerichte zu befestigen. Dann, sagt man, wird er persönlich gegen die Feinde des Reichs und der Christenheit ziehen. Jetzt machen ihm seine Privathändel noch zu tun, und das Reich ist, trotz ein vierzig Landfrieden, noch immer eine Mördergrube. Franken, Schwaben, der Oberrhein und die angrenzenden Länder werden von übermütigen und kühnen Rittern verheeret. Sickingen, Selbitz mit einem Fuß, Berlichingen mit der eisernen Hand spotten in diesen Gegenden des kaiserlichen Ansehens-Abt. Ja, wenn Ihro Majestät nicht bald dazu tun, so stecken einen die Kerl am End in Sack.

Liebetraut. Das müßt ein Kerl sein, der das Weinfaß von Fuld in den
Sack schieben wollte.

Bischof. Besonders ist der letzte seit vielen Jahren mein unversöhnlicher Feind, und molestiert mich unsäglich; aber es soll nicht lang mehr währen, hoff ich. Der Kaiser hält jetzt seinen Hof zu Augsburg. Wir haben unsere Maßregeln genommen, es kann uns nicht fehlen.—Herr Doktor, kennt Ihr Adelberten von Weislingen?

Olearius. Nein, Ihro Eminenz.

Bischof. Wenn Ihr die Ankunft dieses Mannes erwartet, werdet Ihr Euch freuen, den edelsten, verständigsten und angenehmsten Ritter in einer Person zu sehen.

Olearius. Es muß ein vortrefflicher Mann sein, der solche
Lobeserhebungen aus solch einem Munde verdient.

Liebetraut. Er ist auf keiner Akademie gewesen.

Bischof. Das wissen wir. (Die Bedienten laufen ans Fenster.) Was gibt's?

Ein Bedienter. Eben reit Färber, Weislingens Knecht, zum Schloßtor herein.

Bischof. Seht, was er bringt, er wird ihn melden.

(Liebetraut geht. Sie stehn auf und trinken noch eins.—Liebetraut kommt zurück.)

Bischof. Was für Nachrichten?

Liebetraut. Ich wollt, es müßt sie Euch ein andrer sagen. Weislingen ist gefangen.

Bischof. Oh!

Liebetraut. Berlichingen hat ihn und drei Knechte bei Haslach weggenommen. Einer ist entronnen, Euch's anzusagen.

Abt. Eine Hiobspost.

Olearius. Es tut mir von Herzen leid.

Bischof. Ich will den Knecht sehn, bringt ihn herauf—Ich will ihn selbst sprechen. Bringt ihn in mein Kabinett. (Ab.)

Abt (setzt sich). Noch einen Schluck.

(Die Knechte schenken ein.)

Olearius. Belieben Ihro Hochwürden nicht eine kleine Promenade in den
Garten zu machen? Post coenam stabis seu passus mille meabis.

Liebetraut. Wahrhaftig, das Sitzen ist Ihnen nicht gesund. Sie kriegen noch einen Schlagfluß.

Abt (hebt sich auf).

Liebetraut (vor sich). Wann ich ihn nur draußen hab, will ich ihm fürs Exerzitium sorgen.

(Gehn ab.)

I. Akt, Szene 4

Jagsthausen

Maria. Weislingen.

Maria. Ihr liebt mich, sagt Ihr. Ich glaub es gerne und hoffe, mit
Euch glücklich zu sein und Euch glücklich zu machen.

Weislingen. Ich fühle nichts, als nur daß ich ganz dein bin. (Er umarmt sie.)

Maria. Ich bitte Euch, laßt mich. Einen Kuß hab ich Euch zum Gottespfennig erlaubt; Ihr scheint aber schon von dem Besitz nehmen zu wollen, was nur unter Bedingungen Euer ist.

Weislingen. Ihr seid zu streng, Maria! Unschuldige Liebe erfreut die
Gottheit, statt sie zu beleidigen.

Maria. Es sei! Aber ich bin nicht dadurch erbaut. Man lehrte mich:
Liebkosungen sein wie Ketten, stark durch ihre Verwandtschaft, und
Mädchen, wenn sie liebten, sein schwächer als Simson nach Verlust
seiner Locken.

Weislingen. Wer lehrte Euch das?

Maria. Die äbtissin meines Klosters. Bis in mein sechzehntes Jahr war ich bei ihr, und nur mit Euch empfind ich das Glück, das ich in ihrem Umgang genoß. Sie hatte geliebt und durfte reden. Sie hatte ein Herz voll Empfindung! Sie war eine vortreffliche Frau.

Weislingen. Da glich sie dir! (Er nimmt ihre Hand.) Wie wird mir's werden, wenn ich Euch verlassen soll!

Maria (zieht ihre Hand zurück). Ein bißchen eng, hoff ich, denn ich weiß, wie's mir sein wird. Aber Ihr sollt fort.

Weislingen. Ja, meine Teuerste, und ich will. Denn ich fühle, welche
Seligkeiten ich mir durch dies Opfer erwerbe. Gesegnet sei dein
Bruder, und der Tag, an dem er auszog, mich zu fangen!

Maria. Sein Herz war voll Hoffnung für ihn und dich. "Lebt wohl!" sagt' er beim Abschied, "ich will sehen, daß ich ihn wiederfinde."

Weislingen. Er hat's. Wie wünscht ich, die Verwaltung meiner Güter und ihre Sicherheit nicht durch das leidige Hofleben so versäumt zu haben! Du könntest gleich die Meinige sein.

Maria. Auch der Aufschub hat seine Freuden.

Weislingen. Sage das nicht, Maria, ich muß sonst fürchten, du empfindest weniger stark als ich. Doch ich büße verdient; und welche Hoffnungen werden mich auf jedem Schritt begleiten! Ganz der Deine zu sein, nur in dir und dem Kreise von Guten zu leben, von der Welt entfernt, getrennt, alle Wonne zu genießen, die so zwei Herzen, einander gewähren! Was ist die Gnade des Fürsten, was der Beifall der Welt gegen diese einfache Glückseligkeit? Ich habe viel gehofft und gewünscht, das widerfährt mir über alles Hoffen und Wünschen.

(Götz kommt.)

Götz. Euer Knab ist wieder da. Er konnte vor Müdigkeit und Hunger kaum etwas vorbringen. Meine Frau gibt ihm zu essen. So viel hab ich verstanden: der Bischof will den Knaben nicht herausgeben, es sollen Kaiserliche Kommissarien ernannt und ein Tag ausgesetzt werden, wo die Sache dann verglichen werden mag. Dem sei, wie ihm wolle, Adelbert, Ihr seid frei; ich verlange weiter nichts als Eure Hand, daß Ihr ins künftige meinen Feinden weder öffentlich noch heimlich Vorschub tun wollt.

Weislingen. Hier faß ich Eure Hand. Laßt, von diesem Augenblick an, Freundschaft und Vertrauen, gleich einem ewigen Gesetz der Natur, unveränderlich unter uns sein! Erlaubt mir zugleich, diese Hand zu fassen (er nimmt Mariens Hand) und den Besitz des edelsten Fräuleins.

Götz. Darf ich ja für Euch sagen?

Maria. Wenn Ihr es mit mir sagt.

Götz. Es ist ein Glück, daß unsere Vorteile diesmal miteinander gehn. Du brauchst nicht rot zu werden. Deine Blicke sind Beweis genug. Ja denn, Weislingen! Gebt Euch die Hände, und so sprech ich Amen!—Mein Freund und Bruder!—Ich danke dir, Schwester! Du kannst mehr als Hanf spinnen. Du hast einen Faden gedreht, diesen Paradiesvogel zu fesseln. Du siehst nicht ganz frei, Adelbert! Was fehlt dir? Ich—bin ganz glücklich; was ich nur träumend hoffte, seh ich, und bin wie träumend. Ach! nun ist mein Traum aus. Mir war's heute nacht, ich gäb dir meine rechte eiserne Hand, und du hieltest mich so fest, daß sie aus den Armschienen ging wie abgebrochen. Ich erschrak und wachte drüber auf. Ich hätte nur fortträumen sollen, da würd ich gesehen haben, wie du mir eine neue lebendige Hand ansetztest—Du sollst mir jetzo fort, dein Schloß und deine Güter in vollkommenen Stand zu setzen. Der verdammte Hof hat dich beides versäumen machen. Ich muß meiner Frau rufen. Elisabeth!

Maria. Mein Bruder ist in voller Freude.

Weislingen. Und doch darf ich ihm den Rang streitig machen.

Götz. Du wirst anmutig wohnen.

Maria. Franken ist ein gesegnetes Land.

Weislingen. Und ich darf wohl sagen, mein Schloß liegt in der gesegnetsten und anmutigsten Gegend.

Götz. Das dürft Ihr, und ich will's behaupten. Hier fließt der Main, und allmählich hebt der Berg an, der, mit äckern und Weinbergen bekleidet, von Euerm Schloß gekrönt wird, dann biegt sich der Fluß schnell um die Ecke hinter dem Felsen Eures Schlosses hin. Die Fenster des großen Saals gehen steil herab aufs Wasser, eine Aussicht viel Stunden weit.

(Elisabeth kommt.)

Elisabeth. Was schafft ihr?

Götz. Du sollst deine Hand auch dazu geben und sagen: "Gott segne euch!" Sie sind ein Paar.

Elisabeth. So geschwind!

Götz. Aber nicht unvermutet.

Elisabeth. Möget Ihr Euch so immer nach ihr sehnen als bisher, da ihr um sie warbt! Und dann! Möchtet Ihr so glücklich sein, als Ihr sie lieb behaltet!

Weislingen. Amen! Ich begehre kein Glück als unter diesem Titel.

Götz. Der Bräutigam, meine liebe Frau, tut eine kleine Reise; denn die große Veränderung zieht viel geringe nach sich. Er entfernt sich zuerst vom Bischöflichen Hof, um diese Freundschaft nach und nach erkalten zu lassen. Dann reißt er seine Güter eigennützigen Pachtern aus den Händen. Und—kommt, Schwester, komm, Elisabeth! Wir wollen ihn allein lassen. Sein Knab hat ohne Zweifel geheime Aufträge an ihn.

Weislingen. Nichts, als was Ihr wissen dürft.

Götz. Braucht's nicht.—Franken und Schwaben! Ihr seid nun verschwisterter als jemals. Wie wollen wir den Fürsten den Daumen auf dem Aug halten!

(Die drei gehn.)

Weislingen. Gott im Himmel! Konntest du mir Unwürdigem solch eine Seligkeit bereiten? Es ist zu viel für mein Herz. Wie ich von den elenden Menschen abhing, die ich zu beherrschen glaubte, von den Blicken des Fürsten, von dem ehrerbietigen Beifall umher! Götz, teurer Götz, du hast mich mir selbst wiedergegeben, und, Maria, du vollendest meine Sinnesänderung. Ich fühle mich so frei wie in heiterer Luft. Bamberg will ich nicht mehr sehen, will all die schändlichen Verbindungen durchschneiden, die mich unter mir selbst hielten. Mein Herz erweitert sich, hier ist kein beschwerliches Streben nach versagter Größe. So gewiß ist der allein glücklich und groß, der weder zu herrschen noch zu gehorchen braucht, um etwas zu sein!

(Franz tritt auf.)

Franz. Gott grüß Euch, gestrenger Herr! Ich bring Euch so viel Grüße, daß ich nicht weiß, wo anzufangen. Bamberg und zehn Meilen in die Runde entbieten Euch ein tausendfaches: Gott grüß Euch!

Weislingen. Willkommen, Franz! Was bringst du mehr?

Franz. Ihr steht in einem Andenken bei Hof und überall, daß es nicht zu sagen ist.

Weislingen. Das wird nicht lange dauern.

Franz. So lang Ihr lebt! und nach Eurem Tod wird's heller blinken als die messingenen Buchstaben auf einem Grabstein. Wie man sich Euern Unfall zu Herzen nahm!

Weislingen. Was sagte der Bischof?

Franz. Er war so begierig zu wissen, daß er mit geschäftiger Geschwindigkeit der Fragen meine Antwort verhinderte. Er wußt es zwar schon; denn Färber, der von Haslach entrann, brachte ihm die Botschaft. Aber er wollte alles wissen. Er fragte so ängstlich, ob Ihr nicht versehrt wäret? Ich sagte: "Er ist ganz, von der äußersten Haarspitze bis zum Nagel des kleinen Zehs."

Weislingen. Was sagte er zu den Vorschlägen?

Franz. Er wollte gleich alles herausgeben, den Knaben und noch Geld darauf, nur Euch zu befreien. Da er aber hörte, Ihr solltet ohne das loskommen und nur Euer Wort das äquivalent gegen den. Buben sein, da wollte er absolut den Berlichingen vertagt haben. Er sagte mir hundert Sachen an Euch—ich hab sie wieder vergessen. Es war eine lange Predigt über die Worte: "Ich kann Weislingen nicht entbehren."

Weislingen. Er wird's lernen müssen!

Franz. Wie meint Ihr? Er sagte: "Mach ihn eilen, es wartet alles auf ihn."

Weislingen. Es kann warten. Ich gehe nicht nach Hof.

Franz. Nicht nach Hof? Herr! Wie kommt Euch das? Wenn Ihr wüßtet, was ich weiß. Wenn Ihr nur träumen könntet, was ich gesehen habe.

Weislingen. Wie wird dir's?

Franz. Nur von der bloßen Erinnerung komm ich außer mir. Bamberg ist nicht mehr Bamberg, ein Engel in Weibesgestalt macht es zum Vorhofe des Himmels.

Weislingen. Nichts weiter?

Franz. Ich will ein Pfaff werden, wenn Ihr sie sehet und nicht außer
Euch kommt.

Weislingen. Wer ist's denn?

Franz. Adelheid von Walldorf.

Weislingen. Die! Ich habe viel von ihrer Schönheit gehört.

Franz. Gehört? Das ist eben, als wenn Ihr sagtet: "Ich hab die Musik gesehen." Es ist der Zunge so wenig möglich, eine Linie ihrer Vollkommenheiten auszudrücken, da das Aug sogar in ihrer Gegenwart sich nicht selbst genug ist.

Weislingen. Du bist nicht gescheit.

Franz. Das kann wohl sein. Das letztemal, da ich sie sahe, hatte ich nicht mehr Sinne als ein Trunkener. Oder vielmehr, kann ich sagen, ich fühlte in dem Augenblick, wie's den Heiligen bei himmlischen Erscheinungen sein mag. Alle Sinne stärker, höher, vollkommener, und doch den Gebrauch von keinem.

Weislingen. Das ist seltsam.

Franz. Wie ich von dem Bischof Abschied nahm, saß sie bei ihm. Sie spielten Schach. Er war sehr gnädig, reichte mir seine Hand zu küssen, und sagte mir vieles, davon ich nichts vernahm. Denn ich sah seine Nachbarin, sie hatte ihr Auge aufs Brett geheftet, als wenn sie einem großen Streich nachsänne. Ein feiner lauernder Zug um Mund und Wange! Ich hätt' der elfenbeinerne König sein mögen. Adel und Freundlichkeit herrschten auf ihrer Stirn. Und das blendende Licht des Angesichts und des Busens, wie es von den finstern Haaren erhoben ward!

Weislingen. Du bist drüber gar zum Dichter geworden.

Franz. So fühl ich denn in dem Augenblick, was den Dichter macht, ein volles, ganz von einer Empfindung volles Herz! Wie der Bischof endigte und ich mich neigte, sah sie mich an und sagte: "Auch von mir einen Gruß unbekannterweise! Sag ihm, er mag ja bald kommen. Es warten neue Freunde auf ihn; er soll sie nicht verachten, wenn er schon an alten so reich ist."—Ich wollte was antworten, aber der Paß vom Herzen nach der Zunge war versperrt, ich neigte mich. Ich hätte mein Vermögen gegeben, die Spitze ihres kleinen Fingers küssen zu dürfen! Wie ich so stund, warf der Bischof einen Bauern herunter, ich fuhr darnach und rührte im Aufheben den Saum ihres Kleides, das fuhr mir durch alle Glieder, und ich weiß nicht, wie ich zur Tür hinausgekommen bin.

Weislingen. Ist ihr Mann bei Hofe?

Franz. Sie ist schon vier Monat Witwe. Um sich zu zerstreuen, hält sie sich in Bamberg auf. Ihr werdet sie sehen. Wenn sie einen ansieht, ist's, als wenn man in der Frühlingssonne stünde.

Weislingen. Es würde eine schwächere Wirkung auf mich haben.

Franz. Ich höre, Ihr seid so gut als verheiratet.

Weislingen. Wollte, ich wär's. Meine sanfte Marie wird das Glück meines Lebens machen. Ihre süße Seele bildet sich in ihren blauen Augen. Und weiß wie ein Engel des Himmels, gebildet aus Unschuld und Liebe, leitet sie mein Herz zur Ruhe und Glückseligkeit. Pack zusammen! und dann auf mein Schloß! Ich will Bamberg nicht sehen, und wenn Sankt Veit in Person meiner begehrte. (Geht ab.)

Franz. Da sei Gott vor! Wollen das Beste hoffen! Maria ist liebreich und schön, und einem Gefangenen und Kranken kann ich's nicht übelnehmen, der sich in sie verliebt. In ihren Augen ist Trost, gesellschaftliche Melancholie.—Aber um dich, Adelheid, ist Leben, Feuer, Mut—Ich würde!—Ich bin ein Narr—dazu machte mich ein Blick von ihr. Mein Herr muß hin! Ich muß hin! Und da will ich mich wieder gescheit oder völlig rasend gaffen.

Zweiter Akt

II. Akt, Szene 1

Bamberg. Ein Saal

Bischof, Adelheid spielen Schach. Liebetraut mit einer Zither.
Frauen, Hofleute um ihn herum am Kamin.

Liebetraut (spielt und singt).

Mit Pfeilen und Bogen Cupido geflogen, Die Fackel in Brand, Wollt mutilich kriegen Und männilich siegen Mit stürmender Hand.

Auf! Auf!

An! An! Die Waffen erklirrten, Die Flügelein schwirrten, Die Augen entbrannt.

Da fand er die Busen Ach leider so bloß, Sie nahmen so willig Ihn all auf den Schoß. Er schüttet' die Pfeile Zum Feuer hinein, Sie herzten und drückten Und wiegten ihn ein.

Hei ei o! Popeio!

Adelheid. Ihr seid nicht bei Eurem Spiele. Schach dem König!

Bischof. Es ist noch Auskunft.

Adelheid. Lange werdet Ihr's nicht mehr treiben. Schach dem König!

Liebetraut. Dies Spiel spielt ich nicht, wenn ich ein großer Herr wär, und verböt's am Hofe und im ganzen Land.

Adelheid. Es ist wahr, dies Spiel ist ein Probierstein des Gehirns.

Liebetraut. Nicht darum! Ich wollte lieber das Geheul der
Totenglocke und ominöser Vögel, lieber das Gebell des knurrischen
Hofhunds Gewissen, lieber wollt ich sie durch den tiefsten Schlaf
hören, als von Laufern, Springern und andern Bestien das ewige:
"Schach dem König!"

Bischof. Wem wird auch das einfallen!

Liebetraut. Einem zum Exempel, der schwach wäre und ein stark Gewissen hätte, wie denn das meistenteils beisammen ist. Sie nennen's ein königlich Spiel und sagen, es sei für einen König erfunden worden, der den Erfinder mit einem Meer von überfluß belohnt habe. Wenn das wahr ist, so ist mir's, als wenn ich ihn sähe. Er war minorenn an Verstand oder an Jahren, unter der Vormundschaft seiner Mutter oder seiner Frau, hatte Milchhaare im Bart und Flachshaare um die Schläfe, er war so gefällig wie ein Weidenschößling und spielte gern Dame und mit den Damen, nicht aus Leidenschaft, behüte Gott! nur zum Zeitvertreib. Sein Hofmeister, zu tätig, um ein Gelehrter, zu unlenksam, ein Weltmann zu sein, erfand das Spiel in usum Delphini, das so homogen mit Seiner Majestät war—und so ferner.

Adelheid. Matt! Ihr solltet die Lücken unsrer Geschichtsbücher ausfüllen, Liebetraut.

(Sie stehen auf.)

Liebetraut. Die Lücken unsrer Geschlechtsregister, das wäre
profitabler. Seitdem die Verdienste unserer Vorfahren mit ihren
Porträts zu einerlei Gebrauch dienen, die leeren Seiten nämlich unsrer
Zimmer und unsers Charakters zu tapezieren; da wäre was zu verdienen.

Bischof. Er will nicht kommen, sagtet Ihr!

Adelheid. Ich bitt Euch, schlagt's Euch aus dem Sinn.

Bischof. Was das sein mag?

Liebetraut. Was? Die Ursachen lassen sich herunterbeten wie ein Rosenkranz. Er ist in eine Art von Zerknirschung gefallen, von der ich ihn leicht kurieren wollt.

Bischof. Tut das, reitet zu ihm.

Liebetraut. Meinen Auftrag!

Bischof. Er soll unumschränkt sein. Spare nichts, wenn du ihn zurückbringst.

Liebetraut. Darf ich Euch auch hineinmischen, gnädige Frau?

Adelheid. Mit Bescheidenheit.

Liebetraut. Das ist eine weitläufige Kommission.

Adelheid. Kennt Ihr mich so wenig, oder seid Ihr so jung, um nicht zu wissen, in welchem Ton Ihr mit Weislingen von mir zu reden habt?

Liebetraut. Im Ton einer Wachtelpfeife, denk ich.

Adelheid. Ihr werdet nie gescheit werden!

Liebetraut. Wird man das, gnädige Frau?

Bischof. Geht, geht. Nehmt das beste Pferd aus meinem Stall, wählt
Euch Knechte, und schafft mir ihn her!

Liebetraut. Wenn ich ihn nicht herbanne, so sagt: ein altes Weib, das Warzen und Sommerflecken vertreibt, verstehe mehr von der Sympathie als ich.

Bischof. Was wird das helfen! Berlichingen hat ihn ganz eingenommen.
Wenn er herkommt, wird er wieder fort wollen.

Liebetraut. Wollen, das ist keine Frage, aber ob er kann. Der Händedruck eines Fürsten, und das Lächeln einer schönen Frau! Da reißt sich kein Weisling los. Ich eile und empfehle mich zu Gnaden.

Bischof. Reist wohl.

Adelheid. Adieu.

(Er geht.)

Bischof. Wenn er einmal hier ist, verlaß ich mich auf Euch.

Adelheid. Wollt Ihr mich zur Leimstange brauchen?

Bischof. Nicht doch.

Adelheid. Zum Lockvogel denn?

Bischof. Nein, den spielt Liebetraut. Ich bitt Euch, versagt mir nicht, was mir sonst niemand gewähren kann.

Adelheid. Wollen sehn.

Jagsthausen

Hans von Selbitz. Götz.

Selbitz. Jedermann wird Euch loben, daß Ihr denen von Nürnberg Fehd angekündigt habt.

Götz. Es hätte mir das Herz abgefressen, wenn ich's ihnen hätte lang schuldig bleiben sollen. Es ist am Tag, sie haben den Bambergern meinen Buben verraten. Sie sollen an mich denken!

Selbitz. Sie haben einen alten Groll gegen Euch.

Götz. Und ich wider sie; mir ist gar recht, daß sie angefangen haben.

Selbitz. Die Reichsstädte und Pfaffen halten doch von jeher zusammen.

Götz. Sie haben's Ursach.

Selbitz. Wir wollen ihnen die Hölle heiß machen.

Götz. Ich zählte auf Euch. Wollte Gott, der Burgemeister von Nürnberg, mit der güldenen Kett um den Hals, käm uns in Wurf, er sollt sich mit all seinem Witz verwundern.

Selbitz. Ich höre, Weislingen ist wieder auf Eurer Seite. Tritt er zu uns?

Götz. Noch nicht; es hat seine Ursachen, warum er uns noch nicht öffentlich Vorschub tun darf; doch ist's eine Weile genug, daß er nicht wider uns ist. Der Pfaff ist ohne ihn, was das Meßgewand ohne den Pfaffen.

Selbitz. Wann ziehen wir aus?

Götz. Morgen oder übermorgen. Es kommen nun bald Kaufleute von Bamberg und Nürnberg aus der Frankfurter Messe. Wir werden einen guten Fang tun.

Selbitz. Will's Gott. (Ab.)

Bamberg. Zimmer der Adelheid

Adelheid. Kammerfräulein.

Adelheid. Er ist da! sagst du. Ich glaub es kaum.

Fräulein. Wenn ich ihn nicht selbst gesehn hätte, würd ich sagen, ich zweifle.

Adelheid. Den Liebetraut mag der Bischof in Gold einfassen: er hat ein Meisterstück gemacht.

Fräulein. Ich sah ihn, wie er zum Schloß hereinreiten wollte, er saß auf einem Schimmel. Das Pferd scheute, wie's an die Brücke kam, und wollte nicht von der Stelle. Das Volk war aus allen Straßen gelaufen, ihn zu sehn. Sie freuten sich über des Pferds Unart. Von allen Seiten ward er gegrüßt, und er dankte allen. Mit einer angenehmen Gleichgültigkeit saß er droben, und mit Schmeicheln und Drohen bracht er es endlich zum Tor herein, der Liebetraut mit, und wenig Knechte.

Adelheid. Wie gefällt er dir?

Fräulein. Wie mir nicht leicht ein Mann gefallen hat. Er glich dem Kaiser hier (deutet auf Maximilians Porträt), als wenn er sein Sohn wäre. Die Nase nur etwas kleiner, ebenso freundliche lichtbraune Augen, ebenso ein blondes schönes Haar, und gewachsen wie eine Puppe. Ein halb trauriger Zug auf seinem Gesicht—ich weiß nicht—gefiel mir so wohl!

Adelheid. Ich bin neugierig, ihn zu sehen.

Fräulein. Das wär ein Herr für Euch.

Adelheid. Närrin!

Fräulein. Kinder und Narren-(Liebetraut kommt.)

Liebetraut. Nun, gnädige Frau, was verdien ich?

Adelheid. Hörner von deinem Weibe. Denn nach dem zu rechnen, habt Ihr schon manches Nachbars ehrliches Hausweib aus ihrer Pflicht hinausgeschwatzt.

Liebetraut. Nicht doch, gnädige Frau! Auf ihre Pflicht, wollt Ihr sagen; denn wenn's ja geschah, schwatzt ich sie auf ihres Mannes Bette.

Adelheid. Wie habt Ihr's gemacht, ihn herzubringen?

Liebetraut. Ihr wißt zu gut, wie man Schnepfen fängt; soll ich Euch meine Kunststückchen noch dazu lehren?—Erst tat ich, als wüßt ich nichts, verstünd nichts von seiner Aufführung, und setzt ihn dadurch in den Nachteil, die ganze Historie zu erzählen. Die sah ich nun gleich von einer ganz andern Seite an als er, konnte nicht finden—nicht einsehen—und so weiter. Dann redete ich von Bamberg allerlei durcheinander, Großes und Kleines, erweckte gewisse alte Erinnerungen, und wie ich seine Einbildungskraft beschäftigt hatte, knüpfte ich wirklich eine Menge Fädchen wieder an, die ich zerrissen fand. Er wußte nicht, wie ihm geschah, fühlte einen neuen Zug nach Bamberg, er wollte—ohne zu wollen. Wie er nun in sein Herz ging und das zu entwickeln suchte, und viel zu sehr mit sich beschäftigt war, um auf sich achtzugeben, warf ich ihm ein Seil um den Hals, aus drei mächtigen Stricken, Weiber-, Fürstengunst und Schmeichelei, gedreht, und so hab ich ihn hergeschleppt.

Adelheid. Was sagtet Ihr von mir?

Liebetraut. Die lautre Wahrheit. Ihr hättet wegen Eurer Güter Verdrießlichkeiten—hättet gehofft, da er beim Kaiser so viel gelte, werde er das leicht enden können.

Adelheid. Wohl.

Liebetraut. Der Bischof wird ihn Euch bringen.

Adelheid. Ich erwarte sie. (Liebetraut ab.) Mit einem Herzen, wie ich selten Besuch erwarte.

Im Spessart

Berlichingen. Selbitz. Georg als Reitersknecht.

Götz. Du hast ihn nicht angetroffen, Georg!

Georg. Er war tags vorher mit Liebetraut nach Bamberg geritten und zwei Knechte mit.

Götz. Ich seh nicht ein, was das geben soll.

Selbitz. Ich wohl. Eure Versöhnung war ein wenig zu schnell, als daß sie dauerhaft hätte sein sollen. Der Liebetraut ist ein pfiffiger Kerl; von dem hat er sich beschwätzen lassen.

Götz. Glaubst du, daß er bundbrüchig werden wird?

Selbitz. Der erste Schritt ist getan.

Götz. Ich glaub's nicht. Wer weiß, wie nötig es war, an Hof zu gehen; man ist ihm noch schuldig; wir wollen das Beste hoffen.

Selbitz. Wollte Gott, er verdient' es und täte das Beste!

Götz. Mir fällt eine List ein. Wir wollen Georgen des Bamberger Reiters erbeuteten Kittel anziehen und ihm das Geleitzeichen geben; er mag nach Bamberg reiten und sehen, wie's steht.

Georg. Da hab ich lange drauf gehofft.

Götz. Es ist dein erster Ritt. Sei vorsichtig, Knabe! Mir wäre leid, wenn dir ein Unfall begegnen sollt.

Georg. Laßt nur, mich irrt's nicht, wenn noch so viel um mich herumkrabbeln, mir ist's, als wenn's Ratten und Mäuse wären. (Ab.)

Bamberg

Bischof. Du willst dich nicht länger halten lassen!

Weislingen. Ihr werdet nicht verlangen, daß ich meinen Eid brechen soll.

Bischof. Ich hätte verlangen können, du solltest ihn nicht schwören. Was für ein Geist regierte dich? Konnt ich dich ohne das nicht befreien? Gelt ich so wenig am Kaiserlichen Hofe?

Weislingen. Es ist geschehen; verzeiht mir, wenn Ihr könnt.

Bischof. Ich begreif nicht, was nur im geringsten dich nötigte, den Schritt zu tun! Mir zu entsagen? Waren denn nicht hundert andere Bedingungen, loszukommen? Haben wir nicht seinen Buben? Hätt ich nicht Gelds genug gegeben und ihn wieder beruhigt? Unsere Anschläge auf ihn und seine Gesellen wären fortgegangen—Ach ich denke nicht, daß ich mit seinem Freunde rede, der nun wider mich arbeitet und die Minen leicht entkräften kann, die er selbst gegraben hat.

Weislingen. Gnädiger Herr!

Bischof. Und doch—wenn ich wieder dein Angesicht sehe, deine Stimme höre. Es ist nicht möglich, nicht möglich.

Weislingen. Lebt wohl, gnädiger Herr.

Bischof. Ich gebe dir meinen Segen. Sonst, wenn du gingst, sagt ich:
"Auf Wiedersehn!" Jetzt—Wollte Gott, wir sähen einander nie wieder!

Weislingen. Es kann sich vieles ändern.

Bischof. Vielleicht seh ich dich noch einmal, als Feind vor meinen Mauern, die Felder verheeren, die ihren blühenden Zustand dir jetzo danken.

Weislingen. Nein, gnädiger Herr.

Bischof. Du kannst nicht nein sagen. Die weltlichen Stände, meine
Nachbarn, haben alle einen Zahn auf mich. Solang ich dich hatte—Geht,
Weislingen! Ich habe Euch nichts mehr zu sagen. Ihr habt vieles
zunichte gemacht. Geht!

Weislingen. Und ich weiß nicht, was ich sagen soll.

(Bischof ab.—Franz tritt auf.)

Franz. Adelheid erwartet Euch. Sie ist nicht wohl. Und doch will sie Euch ohne Abschied nicht lassen.

Weislingen. Komm.

Franz. Gehn wir denn gewiß?

Weislingen. Noch diesen Abend.-Franz. Mir ist, als wenn ich aus der
Welt sollte.

Weislingen. Mir auch, und noch darzu, als wüßt ich nicht wohin.

II. Akt, Szene 2

Adelheidens Zimmer

Adelheid. Fräulein.

Fräulein. Ihr seht blaß, gnädige Frau.

Adelheid.—Ich lieb ihn nicht, und wollte doch, daß er bliebe. Siehst du, ich könnte mit ihm leben, ob ich ihn gleich nicht zum Manne haben möchte.

Fräulein. Glaubt Ihr, er geht?

Adelheid. Er ist zum Bischof, um Lebewohl zu sagen.

Fräulein. Er hat darnach noch einen schweren Stand.

Adelheid. Wie meinst du?

Fräulein. Was fragt Ihr, gnädige Frau? Ihr habt sein Herz geangelt, und wenn er sich losreißen will, verblutet er.

(Adelheid. Weislingen.)

Weislingen. Ihr seid nicht wohl, gnädige Frau?

Adelheid. Das kann Euch einerlei sein. Ihr verlaßt uns, verlaßt uns auf immer. Was fragt Ihr, ob wir leben oder sterben.

Weislingen. Ihr verkennt mich.

Adelheid. Ich nehme Euch, wie Ihr Euch gebt.

Weislingen. Das Ansehn trügt.

Adelheid. So seid Ihr ein Chamäleon?

Weislingen. Wenn Ihr mein Herz sehen könntet!

Adelheid. Schöne Sachen würden mir vor die Augen kommen.

Weislingen. Gewiß! Ihr würdet Euer Bild drin finden.

Adelheid. In irgendeinem Winkel bei den Porträten ausgestorbener Familien. Ich bitt Euch, Weislingen, bedenkt, Ihr redet mit mir. Falsche Worte gelten zum höchsten, wenn sie Masken unserer Taten sind. Ein Vermummter, der kenntlich ist, spielt eine armselige Rolle. Ihr leugnet Eure Handlungen nicht und redet das Gegenteil; was soll man von Euch halten?

Weislingen. Was Ihr wollt. Ich bin so geplagt mit dem, was ich bin, daß mir wenig bang ist, für was man mich nehmen mag.

Adelheid. Ihr kommt, um Abschied zu nehmen.

Weislingen. Erlaubt mir, Eure Hand zu küssen, und ich will sagen. Lebt wohl. Ihr erinnert mich! Ich bedachte nicht—Ich bin beschwerlich, gnädige Frau.

Adelheid. Ihr legt's falsch aus: ich wollte Euch forthelfen; denn Ihr wollt fort.

Weislingen. O sagt: ich muß. Zöge mich nicht die Ritterpflicht, der heilige Handschlag-Adelheid. Geht! Geht! Erzählt das Mädchen, die den "Theuerdank" lesen und sich so einen Mann wünschen. Ritterpflicht! Kinderspiel!

Weislingen. Ihr denkt nicht so.

Adelheid. Bei meinem Eid, Ihr verstellt Euch! Was habt Ihr versprochen? Und wem? Einem Mann, der seine Pflicht gegen den Kaiser und das Reich verkennt, in eben dem Augenblick Pflicht zu leisten, da er durch Eure Gefangennehmung in die Strafe der Acht verfällt. Pflicht zu leisten! die nicht gültiger sein kann als ungerechter gezwungener Eid. Entbinden nicht unsere Gesetze von solchen Schwüren? Macht das Kindern weis, die den Rübezahl glauben. Es stecken andere Sachen dahinter. Ein Feind des Reichs zu werden, ein Feind der bürgerlichen Ruh und Glückseligkeit! Ein Feind des Kaisers! Geselle eines Räubers! du, Weislingen, mit deiner sanften Seele!

Weislingen. Wenn Ihr ihn kenntet-Adelheid. Ich wollt ihm Gerechtigkeit widerfahren lassen. Er hat eine hohe unbändige Seele. Eben darum wehe dir, Weislingen! Geh und bilde dir ein, Geselle von ihm zu sein. Geh! und laß dich beherrschen. Du bist freundlich, gefällig-Weislingen. Er ist's auch.

Adelheid. Aber du bist nachgebend und er nicht! Unversehens wird er dich wegreißen, du wirst ein Sklave eines Edelmanns werden, da du Herr von Fürsten sein könntest.—Doch es ist Unbarmherzigkeit, dir deinen zukünftigen Stand zu verleiden.

Weislingen. Hättest du gefühlt, wie liebreich er mir begegnete.

Adelheid. Liebreich! Das rechnest du ihm an? Es war seine Schuldigkeit; und was hättest du verloren, wenn er widerwärtig gewesen wäre? Mir hätte das willkommner sein sollen. Ein übermütiger Mensch wie der-Weislingen. Ihr redet von Euerm Feind.

Adelheid. Ich redete für Eure Freiheit—Und weiß überhaupt nicht, was ich vor einen Anteil dran nehme. Lebt wohl.

Weislingen. Erlaubt noch einen Augenblick. (Er nimmt ihre Hand und schweigt.)

Adelheid. Habt Ihr mir noch was zu sagen?

Weislingen.—Ich muß fort.

Adelheid. So geht.

Weislingen. Gnädige Frau!—Ich kann nicht.

Adelheid. Ihr müßt.

Weislingen. Soll das Euer letzter Blick sein?

Adelheid. Geht, ich bin krank, sehr zur ungelegnen Zeit.

Weislingen. Seht mich nicht so an.

Adelheid. Willst du unser Feind sein, und wir sollen dir lächeln?
Geh!

Weislingen. Adelheid!

Adelheid. Ich hasse Euch!

(Franz kommt.)

Franz. Gnädiger Herr! Der Bischof läßt Euch rufen.

Adelheid. Geht! Geht!

Franz. Er bittet Euch, eilend zu kommen.

Adelheid. Geht! Geht!

Weislingen. Ich nehme nicht Abschied, ich sehe Euch wieder! (Ab.)

Adelheid. Mich wieder? Wir wollen dafür sein. Margarete, wenn er kommt, weis ihn ab. Ich bin krank, habe Kopfweh, ich schlafe—Weis ihn ab. Wenn er noch zu gewinnen ist, so ist's auf diesem Wege. (Ab. )

Vorzimmer

Weislingen. Franz.

Weislingen. Sie will mich nicht sehn?

Franz. Es wird Nacht, soll ich die Pferde satteln?

Weislingen. Sie will mich nicht sehn?

Franz. Wann befehlen Ihro Gnaden die Pferde?

Weislingen. Es ist zu spät! Wir bleiben hier.

Franz. Gott sei Dank! (Ab.)

Weislingen. Du bleibst! Sei auf, deiner Hut, die Versuchung ist groß. Mein Pferd scheute, wie ich zum Schloßtor herein wollte, mein guter Geist stellte sich ihm entgegen, er kannte die Gefahren, die mein hier warteten.—Doch ist's nicht recht, die vielen Geschäfte, die ich dem Bischof unvollendet liegen ließ, nicht wenigstens so zu ordnen, daß ein Nachfolger da anfangen kann, wo ich's gelassen habe. Das kann ich doch alles tun, unbeschadet Berlichingen und unserer Verbindung. Denn halten sollen sie mich hier nicht.—Wäre doch besser gewesen, wenn ich nicht gekommen wäre. Aber ich will fort—morgen oder übermorgen. (Geht ab.)

Im Spessart

Götz. Selbitz. Georg.

Selbitz. Ihr seht, es ist gegangen, wie ich gesagt habe.

Götz. Nein! Nein! Nein!

Georg. Glaubt, ich berichte Euch mit der Wahrheit. Ich tat, wie Ihr befahlt, nahm den Kittel des Bambergischen und sein Zeichen, und damit ich doch mein Essen und Trinken verdiente, geleitete ich Reineckische Bauern hinauf nach Bamberg.

Selbitz. In der Verkappung? Das hätte dir übel geraten können.

Georg. So denk ich auch hintendrein. Ein Reitersmann, der das voraus denkt, wird keine weiten Sprünge machen. Ich kam nach Bamberg, und gleich im Wirtshaus hörte ich erzählen: Weislingen und der Bischof seien ausgesöhnt, und man redte viel von einer Heirat mit der Witwe des von Walldorf.

Götz. Gespräche.

Georg. Ich sah ihn, wie er sie zur Tafel führte. Sie ist schön, bei meinem Eid, sie ist schön. Wir bückten uns alle, sie dankte uns allen, er nickte mit dem Kopf, sah sehr vergnügt, sie gingen vorbei, und das Volk murmelte: "Ein schönes Paar!"

Götz. Das kann sein.

Georg. Hört weiter. Da er des andern Tags in die Messe ging, paßt ich meine Zeit ab. Er war allein mit einem Knaben. Ich stund unten an der Treppe und sagte leise zu ihm: "Ein paar Worte von Euerm Berlichingen." Er ward bestürzt; ich sahe das Geständnis seines Lasters in seinem Gesicht, er hatte kaum das Herz, mich anzusehen, mich, einen schlechten Reitersjungen.

Selbitz. Das macht, sein Gewissen war schlechter als dein Stand.

Georg. "Du bist Bambergisch?" sagt' er.—"Ich bring einen Gruß vom Ritter Berlichingen", sagt ich, "und soll fragen—"—"Komm morgen früh", sagt' er, "an mein Zimmer, wir wollen weiterreden."

Götz. Kamst du?

Georg. Wohl kam ich, und mußt im Vorsaal stehn, lang, lang. Und die seidnen Buben beguckten mich von vorn und hinten. Ich dachte, guckt ihr—Endlich führte man mich hinein, er schien böse, mir war's einerlei. Ich trat zu ihm und legte meine Kommission ab. Er tat feindlich böse, wie einer, der kein Herz hat und 's nit will merken lassen. Er verwunderte sich, daß Ihr ihn durch einen Reitersjungen zur Rede setzen ließt. Das verdroß mich. Ich sagte, es gäbe nur zweierlei Leut, brave und Schurken, und ich diente Götzen von Berlichingen. Nun fing er an, schwatzte allerlei verkehrtes Zeug, das darauf hinausging: Ihr hättet ihn übereilt, er sei Euch keine Pflicht schuldig und wolle nichts mit Euch zu tun haben.

Götz. Hast du das aus seinem Munde?

Georg. Das und noch mehr—Er drohte mir-Götz. Es ist genug! Der wäre nun auch verloren! Treu und Glaube, du hast mich wieder betrogen. Arme Marie! Wie werd ich dir's beibringen!

Selbitz. Ich wollte lieber mein ander Bein dazu verlieren, als so ein
Hundsfott sein. (Ab.)

Bamberg

Adelheid. Weislingen.

Adelheid. Die Zeit fängt mir an unerträglich lang zu werden; reden mag ich nicht, und ich schäme mich, mit Euch zu spielen. Langeweile, du bist ärger als ein kaltes Fieber.

Weislingen. Seid Ihr mich schon müde?

Adelheid. Euch nicht sowohl als Euern Umgang. Ich wollte, Ihr wärt, wo Ihr hinwolltet, und wir hätten Euch nicht gehalten.

Weislingen. Das ist Weibergunst! Erst brütet sie, mit Mutterwärme, unsere liebsten Hoffnungen an; dann, gleich einer unbeständigen Henne, verläßt sie das Nest und übergibt ihre schon keimende Nachkommenschaft dem Tode und der Verwesung.

Adelheid. Scheltet die Weiber! Der unbesonnene Spieler zerbeißt und zerstampft die Karten, die ihn unschuldigerweise verlieren machten. Aber laßt mich Euch was von Mannsleuten erzählen. Was seid denn ihr, um von Wankelmut zu sprechen? Ihr, die ihr selten seid, was ihr sein wollt, niemals, was ihr sein solltet. Könige im Festtagsornat, vom Pöbel beneidet. Was gäb eine Schneidersfrau drum, eine Schnur Perlen um ihren Hals zu haben, von dem Saum eures Kleids, den eure Absätze verächtlich zurückstoßen!

Weislingen. Ihr seid bitter.

Adelheid. Es ist die Antistrophe von Eurem Gesang. Eh ich Euch kannte, Weislingen, ging mir's wie der Schneidersfrau. Der Ruf, hundertzüngig, ohne Metapher gesprochen, hatte Euch so zahnarztmäßig herausgestrichen, daß ich mich überreden ließ zu wünschen: möchtest du doch diese Quintessenz des männlichen Geschlechts, den Phönix Weislingen zu Gesicht kriegen! Ich ward meines Wunsches gewährt.

Weislingen. Und der Phönix präsentierte sich als ein ordinärer
Haushahn.

Adelheid. Nein, Weislingen, ich nahm Anteil an Euch.

Weislingen. Es schien so-Adelheid. Und war. Denn wirklich, ihr übertraft Euern Ruf. Die Menge schätzt nur den Widerschein des Verdienstes. Wie mir's denn nun geht, daß ich über die Leute nicht denken mag, denen ich wohlwill; so lebten wir eine Zeitlang nebeneinander, es fehlte mir was, und ich wußte nicht, was ich an Euch vermißte. Endlich gingen mir die Augen auf. Ich sah statt des aktiven Mannes, der die Geschäfte eines Fürstentums belebte, der sich und seinen Ruhm dabei nicht vergaß, der auf hundert großen Unternehmungen, wie auf übereinander gewälzten Bergen, zu den Wolken hinaufgestiegen war: den sah ich auf einmal, jammernd wie einen kranken Poeten, melancholisch wie ein gesundes Mädchen und müßiger als einen alten Junggesellen. Anfangs schrieb ich's Euerm Unfall zu, der Euch noch neu auf dem Herzen lag, und entschuldigte Euch, so gut ich konnte. Jetzt, da es von Tag zu Tage schlimmer mit Euch zu werden scheint, müßt Ihr mir verzeihen, wenn ich Euch meine Gunst entreiße. Ihr besitzt sie ohne Recht, ich schenkte sie einem andern auf Lebenslang, der sie Euch nicht übertragen konnte.

Weislingen. So laßt mich los.

Adelheid. Nicht, bis alle Hoffnung verloren ist. Die Einsamkeit ist in diesen Umständen gefährlich.—Armer Mensch! Ihr seid so mißmütig, wie einer, dem sein erstes Mädchen untreu wird, und eben darum geb ich Euch nicht auf. Gebt mir die Hand, verzeiht mir, was ich aus Liebe gesagt habe.

Weislingen. Könntest du mich lieben, könntest du meiner heißen Leidenschaft einen Tropfen Linderung gewähren! Adelheid! deine Vorwürfe sind höchst ungerecht. Könntest du den hundertsten Teil ahnen von dem, was die Zeit her in mir arbeitet, du würdest mich nicht mit Gefälligkeit, Gleichgültigkeit und Verachtung so unbarmherzig hin und her zerrissen haben—Du lächelst!—Nach dem übereilten Schritt wieder mit mir selbst einig zu werden, kostete mehr als einen Tag. Wider den Menschen zu arbeiten, dessen Andenken so lebhaft neu in Liebe bei mir ist.

Adelheid. Wunderlicher Mann, der du den lieben kannst, den du beneidest! Das ist, als wenn ich meinem Feinde Proviant zuführte.

Weislingen. Ich fühl's wohl, es gilt hier, kein Säumen. Er ist berichtet, daß ich wieder Weislingen bin, und er wird sich seines Vorteils über uns ersehen. Auch, Adelheid, sind wir nicht so träg, als du meinst. Unsere Reiter sind verstärkt und wachsam, unsere Unterhandlungen gehen fort, und der Reichstag zu Augsburg soll hoffentlich unsere Projekte zur Reife bringen.

Adelheid. Ihr geht hin?

Weislingen. Wenn ich eine Hoffnung mitnehmen könnte! (Küßt ihre Hand. )

Adelheid. O ihr Ungläubigen! Immer Zeichen und Wunder! Geh,
Weislingen, und vollende das Werk. Der Vorteil des Bischofs, der
deinige, der meinige, sie sind so verwebt, daß, wäre es auch nur der
Politik wegen-Weislingen. Du kannst scherzen.

Adelheid. Ich scherze nicht. Meine Güter hat der stolze Herzog inne, die deinigen wird Götz nicht lange ungeneckt lassen; und wenn wir nicht zusammenhalten wie unsere Feinde und den Kaiser auf unsere Seite lenken, sind wir verloren.

Weislingen. Mir ist's nicht bange. Der größte Teil der Fürsten ist unserer Gesinnung. Der Kaiser verlangt Hülfe gegen die Türken, und dafür ist's billig, daß er uns wieder beisteht. Welche Wollust wird mir's sein, deine Güter von übermütigen Feinden zu befreien, die unruhigen Köpfe in Schwaben aufs Kissen zu bringen, die Ruhe des Bistums, unser aller herzustellen. Und dann—?

Adelheid. Ein Tag bringt den andern, und beim Schicksal steht das
Zukünftige.

Weislingen. Aber wir müssen wollen.

Adelheid. Wir wollen ja.

Weislingen. Gewiß?

Adelheid. Nun ja. Geht.

Weislingen. Zauberin!

Herberge Bauernhochzeit. Musik und Tanz draußen

Der Brautvater, Götz, Selbitz am Tische. Bräutigam tritt zu ihnen.

Götz. Das Gescheitste war, daß ihr euern Zwist so glücklich und fröhlich durch eine Heirat endigt.

Brautvater. Besser, als ich mir's hätte träumen lassen. In Ruh und
Fried mit meinem Nachbar, und eine Tochter wohl versorgt dazu!

Bräutigam. Und ich im Besitz des strittigen Stücks, und drüber den hübschten Backfisch im ganzen Dorf. Wollte Gott, Ihr hättet Euch eher drein geben.

Selbitz. Wie lange habt ihr prozessiert?

Brautvater. An die acht Jahre. Ich wollte lieber noch einmal so lang das Frieren haben, als von vorn anfangen. Das ist ein Gezerre, Ihr glaubt's nicht, bis man den Perücken ein Urteil vom Herzen reißt; und was hat man darnach? Der Teufel hol den Assessor Sapupi! 's is ein verfluchter schwarzer Italiener.

Bräutigam. Ja, das ist ein toller Kerl. Zweimal war ich dort.

Brautvater. Und ich dreimal. Und seht, ihr Herrn: kriegen wir ein Urteil endlich, wo ich so viel Recht hab als er, und er so viel als ich, und wir eben stunden wie die Maulaffen, bis mir unser Herrgott eingab, ihm meine Tochter zu geben und das Zeug dazu.

Götz (trinkt). Gut Vernehmen künftig.

Brautvater. Geb's Gott! Geh aber, wie's will, prozessieren tu ich mein Tag nit mehr. Was das ein Geldspiel kost! Jeden Reverenz, den euch ein Prokurator macht, müßt ihr bezahlen.

Selbitz. Sind ja jährlich Kaiserliche Visitationen da.

Brautvater. Hab nichts davon gehört. Ist mir mancher schöne Taler nebenaus gangen. Das unerhörte Blechen!

Götz. Wie meint Ihr?

Brautvater. Ach, da macht alles hohle Pfötchen. Der Assessor allein,
Gott verzeih's ihm, hat mir achtzehn Goldgulden abgenommen.

Bräutigam. Wer?

Brautvater. Wer anders als der Sapupi?

Götz. Das ist schändlich.

Brautvater. Wohl, ich mußt ihm zwanzig erlegen. Und da ich sie ihm hingezahlt hatte, in seinem Gartenhaus, das prächtig ist, im großen Saal, wollt mir vor Wehmut fast das Herz brechen. Denn seht, eines Haus und Hof steht gut, aber wo soll bar Geld herkommen? Ich stund da, Gott weiß, wie mir's war. Ich hatte keinen roten Heller Reisegeld im Sack. Endlich nahm ich mir 's Herz und stellt's ihm vor. Nun er sah, daß mir 's Wasser an die Seele ging, da warf er mir zwei davon zurück und schickt' mich fort.

Bräutigam. Es ist nicht möglich! Der Sapupi?

Brautvater. Wie stellst du dich! Freilich! Kein andrer!

Bräutigam. Den soll der Teufel holen, er hat mir auch funfzehn
Goldgülden abgenommen.

Brautvater. Verflucht!

Selbitz. Götz! Wir sind Räuber!

Brautvater. Drum fiel das Urteil so scheel aus. Du Hund!

Götz. Das müßt ihr nicht ungerügt lassen.

Brautvater. Was sollen wir tun?

Götz. Macht euch auf nach Speier, es ist eben Visitationszeit, zeigt's an, sie müssen's untersuchen und euch zu dem Eurigen helfen.

Bräutigam. Denkt Ihr, wir treiben's durch?

Götz. Wenn ich ihm über die Ohren dürfte, wollt ich's euch versprechen.

Selbitz. Die Summe ist wohl einen Versuch wert.

Götz. Bin ich wohl eher um des vierten Teils willen ausgeritten.

Brautvater. Wie meinst du?

Bräutigam. Wir wollen, geh's wie's geh.

(Georg kommt.)

Georg. Die Nürnberger sind im Anzug.

Götz. Wo?

Georg. Wenn wir ganz sachte reiten, packen wir sie zwischen Beerheim und Mühlbach im Wald.

Selbitz. Trefflich!

Götz. Kommt, Kinder. Gott grüß euch! Helf uns allen zum Unsrigen!

Bauer. Großen Dank! Ihr wollt nicht zum Nacht-Ims bleiben?

Götz. Können nicht. Adies.

Dritter Akt

III. Akt, Szene 1

Augsburg. Ein Garten

Zwei Nürnberger Kaufleute.

Erster Kaufmann. Hier wollen wir stehn, denn da muß der Kaiser vorbei.
Er kommt eben den langen Gang herauf.

Zweiter Kaufmann. Wer ist bei ihm?

Erster Kaufmann. Adelbert von Weislingen!

Zweiter Kaufmann. Bambergs Freund! Das ist gut.

Erster Kaufmann. Wir wollen einen Fußfall tun, und ich will reden.

Zweiter Kaufmann. Wohl, da kommen sie.

(Kaiser. Weislingen.)

Erster Kaufmann. Er sieht verdrießlich aus.

Kaiser. Ich bin unmutig, Weislingen, und wenn ich auf mein vergangenes Leben zurücksehe, möcht ich verzagt werden; so viel halbe, so viel verunglückte Unternehmungen! und das alles, weil kein Fürst im Reich so klein ist, dem nicht mehr an seinen Grillen gelegen wäre als an meinen Gedanken.

(Die Kaufleute werfen sich ihm zu Füßen.)

Kaufmann. Allerdurchlauchtigster! Großmächtigster!

Kaiser. Wer seid ihr? Was gibt's?

Kaufmann. Arme Kaufleute von Nürnberg, Eurer Majestät Knechte, und flehen um Hülfe. Götz von Berlichingen und Hans von Selbitz haben unser dreißig, die von der Frankfurter Messe kamen, im Bambergischen Geleite niedergeworfen und beraubt; wir bitten Eure Kaiserliche Majestät um Hülfe, um Beistand, sonst sind wir alle verdorbene Leute, genötigt, unser Brot zu betteln.

Kaiser. Heiliger Gott! Heiliger Gott! Was ist das? Der eine hat nur eine Hand, der andere nur ein Bein; wenn sie denn erst zwei Hände hätten, und zwei Beine, was wolltet ihr dann tun?

Kaufmann. Wir bitten Eure Majestät untertänigst, auf unsere bedrängten Umstände ein mitleidiges Auge zu werfen.

Kaiser. Wie geht's zu! Wenn ein Kaufmann einen Pfeffersack verliert, soll man das ganze Reich aufmahnen; und wenn Händel vorhanden sind, daran Kaiserlicher Majestät und dem Reich viel gelegen ist, daß es Königreich, Fürstentum, Herzogtum und anders betrifft, so kann euch kein Mensch zusammenbringen.

Weislingen. Ihr kommt zur ungelegnen Zeit. Geht und verweilt einige
Tage hier.

Kaufleute. Wir empfehlen uns zu Gnaden. (Ab.)

Kaiser. Wieder neue Händel. Sie wachsen nach wie die Köpfe der Hydra.

Weislingen. Und sind nicht auszurotten als mit Feuer und Schwert und einer mutigen Unternehmung.

Kaiser. Glaubt Ihr?

Weislingen. Ich halte nichts für tunlicher, wenn Eure Majestät und die Fürsten sich über andern unbedeutenden Zwist vereinigen könnten. Es ist mit nichten ganz Deutschland, das über Beunruhigung klagt. Franken und Schwaben allein glimmt noch von den Resten des innerlichen verderblichen Bürgerkriegs. Und auch da sind viele der Edeln und Freien, die sich nach Ruhe sehnen. Hätten wir einmal diesen Sickingen, Selbitz—Berlichingen auf die Seite geschafft, das übrige würde bald von sich selbst zerfallen. Denn sie sind's, deren Geist die aufrührische Menge belebt.

Kaiser. Ich möchte die Leute gerne schonen, sie sind tapfer und edel.
Wenn ich Krieg führte, müßten sie mit mir zu Felde.

Weislingen. Es wäre zu wünschen, daß sie von jeher gelernt hätten, ihrer Pflicht zu gehorchen. Und dann wär es höchst gefährlich, ihre aufrührischen Unternehmungen durch Ehrenstellen zu belohnen. Denn eben diese kaiserliche Mild und Gnade ist's, die sie bisher so ungeheuer mißbrauchten, und ihr Anhang, der sein Vertrauen und Hoffnung darauf setzt, wird nicht ehe zu bändigen sein, bis wir sie ganz vor den Augen der Welt zunichte gemacht und ihnen alle Hoffnung, jemals wieder emporzukommen, völlig abgeschnitten haben.

Kaiser. Ihr ratet also zur Strenge?

Weislingen. Ich sehe kein ander Mittel, den Schwindelgeist, der ganze Landschaften ergreift, zu bannen. Hören wir nicht schon hier und da die bittersten Klagen der Edeln, daß ihre Untertanen, ihre Leibeignen sich gegen sie auflehnen und mit ihnen rechten, ihnen die hergebrachte Oberherrschaft zu schmälern drohen, so daß die gefährlichsten Folgen zu fürchten sind?

Kaiser. Jetzt wär eine schöne Gelegenheit wider den Berlichingen und Selbitz; nur wollt ich nicht, daß ihnen was zuleid geschehe. Gefangen möcht ich sie haben, und dann müßten sie Urfehde schwören, auf ihren Schlössern ruhig zu bleiben und nicht aus ihrem Bann zu gehen. Bei der nächsten Session will ich's vortragen.

Weislingen. Ein freudiger beistimmender Zuruf wird Eurer Majestät das
Ende der Rede ersparen. (Ab.)

Jagsthausen

Sickingen. Berlichingen.

Sickingen. Ja, ich komme, Eure edle Schwester um ihr Herz und ihre
Hand zu bitten.

Götz. So wollt ich, Ihr wärt eher kommen. Ich muß Euch sagen: Weislingen hat während seiner Gefangenschaft ihre Liebe gewonnen, um sie angehalten, und ich sagt sie ihm zu. Ich hab ihn losgelassen, den Vogel, und er verachtet die gütige Hand, die ihm in der Not Futter reichte. Er schwirrt herum, weiß Gott auf welcher Hecke seine Nahrung zu suchen.

Sickingen. Ist das so?

Götz. Wie ich sage.

Sickingen. Er hat ein doppeltes Band zerrissen. Wohl Euch, daß Ihr mit dem Verräter nicht näher verwandt worden.

Götz. Sie sitzt, das arme Mädchen, verjammert und verbetet ihr Leben.

Sickingen. Wir wollen sie singen machen.

Götz. Wie! Entschließet Ihr Euch, eine Verlaßne zu heiraten?

Sickingen. Es macht euch beiden Ehre, von ihm betrogen worden zu sein. Soll darum das arme Mädchen in ein Kloster gehn, weil der erste Mann, den sie kannte, ein Nichtswürdiger war? Nein doch! ich bleibe darauf, sie soll Königin von meinen Schlössern werden.

Götz. Ich sage Euch, sie war nicht gleichgültig gegen ihn.

Sickingen. Traust du mir nicht zu, daß ich den Schatten eines Elenden sollte verjagen können? Laß uns zu ihr! (Ab.)

Lager der Reichsexekution

Hauptmann. Offiziere.

Hauptmann. Wir müssen behutsam gehn und unsere Leute so viel möglich schonen. Auch ist unsere gemessene Order, ihn in die Enge zu treiben und lebendig gefangenzunehmen. Es wird schwerhalten, denn wer mag sich an ihn machen?

Erster Offizier. Freilich! Und er wird sich wehren wie ein wildes
Schwein. Überhaupt hat er uns sein Lebelang nichts zuleid getan, und
jeder wird's von sich schieben, Kaiser und Reich zu Gefallen Arm und
Bein daranzusetzen.

Zweiter Offizier. Es wäre eine Schande, wenn wir ihn nicht kriegten.
Wenn ich ihn nur einmal beim Lappen habe, er soll nicht loskommen.

Erster Offizier. Faßt ihn nur nicht mit Zähnen, er möchte Euch die Kinnbacken ausziehen. Guter junger Herr, dergleichen Leut packen sich nicht wie ein flüchtiger Dieb.

Zweiter Offizier. Wollen sehn.

Hauptmann. Unsern Brief muß er nun haben. Wir wollen nicht säumen und einen Trupp ausschicken, der ihn beobachten soll.

Zweiter Offizier. Laßt mich ihn führen.

Hauptmann. Ihr seid der Gegend unkundig.

Zweiter Offizier. Ich hab einen Knecht, der hier geboren und erzogen ist.

Hauptmann. Ich bin's zufrieden. (Ab.)

Jagsthausen

Sickingen.

Sickingen. Es geht alles nach Wunsch; sie war etwas bestürzt über meinen Antrag und sah mich vom Kopf bis auf die Füße an; ich wette, sie verglich mich mit ihrem Weißfisch. Gott sei Dank, daß ich mich stellen darf. Sie antwortete wenig und durcheinander; desto besser! Es mag eine Zeit kochen. Bei Mädchen, die durch Liebesunglück gebeizt sind, wird ein Heiratsvorschlag bald gar.

(Götz kommt.)

Sickingen. Was bringt Ihr, Schwager?

Götz. In die Acht erklärt!

Sickingen. Was?

Götz. Da lest den erbaulichen Brief. Der Kaiser hat Exekution gegen mich verordnet, die mein Fleisch den Vögeln unter dem Himmel und den Tieren auf dem Felde zu fressen vorschneiden soll.

Sickingen. Erst sollen sie dran. Just zur gelegenen Zeit bin ich hier.

Götz. Nein, Sickingen, Ihr sollt fort. Eure großen Anschläge könnten darüber zugrunde gehn, wenn Ihr zu so ungelegner Zeit des Reichs Feind werden wolltet. Auch mir werdet Ihr weit mehr nutzen, wenn Ihr neutral zu sein scheint. Der Kaiser liebt Euch, und das Schlimmste, das mir begegnen kann, ist, gefangen zu werden; dann braucht Euer Vorwort und reißt mich aus einem Elend, in das unzeitige Hülfe uns beide stürzen könnte. Denn was wär's? Jetzo geht der Zug gegen mich; erfahren sie, du bist bei mir, so schicken sie mehr, und wir sind um nichts gebessert. Der Kaiser sitzt an der Quelle, und ich wär schon jetzt unwiederbringlich verloren, wenn man Tapferkeit so geschwind einblasen könnte, als man einen Haufen zusammenblasen kann.

Sickingen. Doch kann ich heimlich ein zwanzig Reiter zu Euch stoßen lassen.

Götz. Gut. Ich hab schon Georgen nach dem Selbitz geschickt, und
meine Knechte in der Nachbarschaft herum. Lieber Schwager, wenn meine
Leute beisammen sind, es wird ein Häufchen sein, dergleichen wenig
Fürsten beisammen gesehen haben.

Sickingen. Ihr werdet gegen die Menge wenig sein.

Götz. Ein Wolf ist einer ganzen Herde Schafe zu viel.

Sickingen. Wenn sie aber einen guten Hirten haben?

Götz. Sorg du. Es sind lauter Mietlinge. Und dann kann der beste Ritter nichts machen, wenn er nicht Herr von seinen Handlungen ist. So kamen sie mir auch einmal, wie ich dem Pfalzgrafen zugesagt hatte, gegen Konrad Schotten zu dienen; da legt' er mir einen Zettel aus der Kanzlei vor, wie ich reiten und mich halten sollt; da warf ich den Räten das Papier wieder dar und sagt: ich wüßt nicht darnach zu handlen, ich weiß nicht, was mir begegnen mag, das steht nicht im Zettel, ich muß die Augen selbst auftun und sehn, was ich zu schaffen hab.

Sickingen. Glück zu, Bruder! Ich will gleich fort und dir schicken, was ich in der Eil zusammentreiben kann.

Götz. Komm noch zu den Frauen, ich ließ sie beisammen. Ich wollte, daß du ihr Wort hättest, ehe du gingst. Dann schick mir die Reiter, und komm heimlich wieder, Marien abzuholen, denn mein Schloß, fürcht ich, wird bald kein Aufenthalt für Weiber mehr sein.

Sickingen. Wollen das Beste hoffen. (Ab.)

Bamberg. Adelheidens Zimmer

Adelheid. Franz.

Adelheid. So sind die beiden Exekutionen schon aufgebrochen?

Franz. Ja, und mein Herr hat die Freude, gegen Eure Feinde zu ziehen.
Ich wollte gleich mit, so gern ich zu Euch gehe. Auch will ich jetzt
wieder fort, um bald mit fröhlicher Botschaft wiederzukehren. Mein
Herr hat mir's erlaubt.

Adelheid. Wie steht's mit ihm?

Franz. Er ist munter. Mir befahl er, Eure Hand zu küssen.

Adelheid. Da—deine Lippen sind warm.

Franz (vor sich, auf die Brust deutend). Hier ist's noch wärmer! (Laut.) Gnädige Frau, Eure Diener sind die glücklichsten Menschen unter der Sonne.

Adelheid. Wer führt gegen Berlichingen?

Franz. Der von Sirau. Lebt wohl, beste gnädige Frau! Ich will wieder fort. Vergeßt mich nicht.

Adelheid. Du mußt was essen, trinken, und rasten.

Franz. Wozu das? Ich hab Euch ja gesehen. Ich bin nicht müd noch hungrig.

Adelheid. Ich kenne deine Treu.

Franz. Ach, gnädige Frau!

Adelheid. Du hältst's nicht aus, beruhige dich, und nimm was zu dir.

Franz. Eure Sorgfalt für einen armen Jungen! (Ab.)

Adelheid. Die Tränen stehn ihm in den Augen. Ich lieb ihn von Herzen.
So wahr und warm hat noch niemand an mir gehangen. (Ab.)

Jagsthausen

Götz. Georg.

Georg. Er will selbst mit Euch sprechen. Ich kenn ihn nicht; es ist ein stattlicher Mann, mit schwarzen feurigen Augen.

Götz. Bring ihn herein.

(Lerse kommt.)

Götz. Gott grüß Euch! Was bringt Ihr?

Lerse. Mich selbst, das ist nicht viel, doch alles, was es ist, biet ich Euch an.

Götz. Ihr seid mir willkommen, doppelt willkommen, ein braver Mann, und zu dieser Zeit, da ich nicht hoffte, neue Freunde zu gewinnen, eher den Verlust der alten stündlich fürchtete. Gebt mir Euern Namen.

Lerse. Franz Lerse.

Götz. Ich danke Euch, Franz, daß Ihr mich mit einem braven Mann bekannt macht.

Lerse. Ich machte Euch schon einmal mit mir bekannt, aber damals danktet Ihr mir nicht dafür.

Götz. Ich erinnere mich Eurer nicht.

Lerse. Es wäre mir leid. Wißt Ihr noch, wie Ihr um des Pfalzgrafen willen Konrad Schotten feind wart und nach Haßfurt auf die Fastnacht reiten wolltet?

Götz. Wohl weiß ich es.

Lerse. Wißt Ihr, wie Ihr unterwegs bei einem Dorf fünfundzwanzig
Reitern entgegenkamt?

Götz. Richtig. Ich hielt sie anfangs nur für zwölfe und teilt meinen Haufen, waren unser sechzehn, und hielt am Dorf hinter der Scheuer, in willens, sie sollten bei mir vorbeiziehen. Dann wollt ich ihnen nachrucken, wie ich's mit dem andern Haufen abgeredt hatte.

Lerse. Aber wir sahn Euch und zogen auf eine Höhe am Dorf. Ihr zogt herbei und hieltet unten. Wie wir sahn, Ihr wolltet nicht heraufkommen, ritten wir herab.

Götz. Da sah ich erst, daß ich mit der Hand in die Kohlen geschlagen hatte. Fünfundzwanzig gegen acht! Da galt's kein Feiern. Erhard Truchseß durchstach mir einen Knecht, dafür rannt ich ihn vom Pferde. Hätten sie sich alle gehalten wie er und ein Knecht, es wäre mein und meines kleinen Häufchens übel gewahrt gewesen.

Lerse. Der Knecht, wovon Ihr sagtet-Götz. Es war der bravste, den ich gesehen habe. Er setzte mir heiß zu. Wenn ich dachte, ich hätt ihn von mir gebracht, wollte mit andern zu schaffen haben, war er wieder an mir und schlug feindlich zu. Er hieb mir auch durch den Panzerärmel hindurch, daß es ein wenig gefleischt hatte.

Lerse. Habt Ihr's ihm verziehen?

Götz. Er gefiel mir mehr als zu wohl.

Lerse. Nun, so hoff ich, daß Ihr mit mir zufrieden sein werdet; ich hab mein Probstück an Euch selbst abgelegt.

Götz. Bist du's? O willkommen, willkommen! Kannst du sagen,
Maximilian, du hast unter deinen Dienern einen so geworben!

Lerse. Mich wundert, daß Ihr nicht eh auf mich gefallen seid.

Götz. Wie sollte mir einkommen, daß der mir seine Dienste anbieten würde, der auf das feindseligste mich zu überwältigen trachtete?

Lerse. Eben das, Herr! Von Jugend auf dien ich als Reitersknecht, und hab's mit manchem Ritter aufgenommen. Da wir auf Euch stießen, freut ich mich. Ich kannte Euern Namen, und da lernt ich Euch kennen. Ihr wißt, ich hielt nicht stand; Ihr saht, es war nicht Furcht, denn ich kam wieder. Kurz, ich lernt Euch kennen, und von Stund an beschloß ich, Euch zu dienen.

Götz. Wie lange wollt Ihr bei mir aushalten?

Lerse. Auf ein Jahr. Ohne Entgelt.

Götz. Nein, Ihr sollt gehalten werden wie ein anderer, und drüber, wie der, der mir bei Remlin zu schaffen machte.

(Georg kommt.)

Georg. Hans von Selbitz läßt Euch grüßen. Morgen ist er hier mit funfzig Mann.

Götz. Wohl.

Georg. Es zieht am Kocher ein Trupp Reichsvölker herunter; ohne
Zweifel, Euch zu beobachten.

Götz. Wieviel?

Georg. Ihrer funfzig.

Götz. Nicht mehr! Komm, Lerse, wir wollen sie zusammenschmeißen, wenn Selbitz kommt, daß er schon ein Stück Arbeit getan findet.

Lerse. Das soll eine reichliche Vorlese werden.

Götz. Zu Pferde! (Ab.)

III. Akt, Szene 2

Wald an einem Morast

Zwei Reichsknechte begegnen einander.

Erster Knecht. Was machst du hier?

Zweiter Knecht. Ich hab Urlaub gebeten, meine Notdurft zu verrichten. Seit dem blinden Lärmen gestern abends ist mir's in die Gedärme geschlagen, daß ich alle Augenblicke vom Pferd muß.

Erster Knecht. Hält der Trupp hier in der Nähe?

Zweiter Knecht. Wohl eine Stunde den Wald hinauf.

Erster Knecht. Wie verläufst du dich denn hieher?

Zweiter Knecht. Ich bitte dich, verrat mich nicht. Ich will aufs nächste Dorf und sehn, ob ich nit mit warmen überschlägen meinem übel abhelfen kann. Wo kommst du her?

Erster Knecht. Vom nächsten Dorf. Ich hab unserm Offizier Wein und
Brot geholt.

Zweiter Knecht. So, er tut sich was zugut vor unserm Angesicht, und wir sollen fasten! Schön Exempel!

Erster Knecht. Komm mit zurück, Schurke.

Zweiter Knecht. Wär ich ein Narr! Es sind noch viele unterm Haufen, die gern fasteten, wenn sie so weit davon wären als ich.

Erster Knecht. Hörst du! Pferde!

Zweiter Knecht. O weh!

Erster Knecht. Ich klettere auf den Baum.

Zweiter Knecht. Ich steck mich ins Rohr.

(Götz, Lerse, Georg, Knechte zu Pferde.)

Götz. Hier am Teich weg und linker Hand in den Wald, so kommen wir ihnen in Rücken.

(Sie ziehen vorbei.)

Erster Knecht (steigt vom Baum). Da ist nicht gut sein. Michel! Er antwortet nicht? Michel, sie sind fort! (Er geht nach dem Sumpf.) Michel! O weh, er ist versunken. Michel! Er hört mich nicht, er ist erstickt. Bist doch krepiert, du Memme.—Wir sind geschlagen. Feinde, überall Feinde!

(Götz, Georg zu Pferde.)

Götz. Halt, Kerl, oder du bist des Todes!

Knecht. Schont meines Lebens!

Götz. Dein Schwert! Georg, führ ihn zu den andern Gefangenen, die Lerse dort unten am Wald hat. Ich muß ihren flüchtigen Führer erreichen. (Ab.)

Knecht. Was ist aus unserm Ritter geworden, der uns führte?

Georg. Unterst zu oberst stürzt' ihn mein Herr vom Pferd, daß der Federbusch im Kot stak. Seine Reiter huben ihn aufs Pferd und fort, wie besessen. (Ab.)

Lager

Hauptmann. Erster Ritter.

Erster Ritter. Sie fliehen von weitem dem Lager zu.

Hauptmann. Er wird ihnen an den Fersen sein. Laßt ein funfzig ausrücken bis an die Mühle; wenn er sich zu weit verliert, erwischt Ihr ihn vielleicht.

(Ritter ab.—Zweiter Ritter geführt.)

Hauptmann. Wie geht's, junger Herr? Habt Ihr ein paar Zinken abgerennt?

Ritter. Daß dich die Pest! Das stärkste Geweih wäre gesplittert wie Glas. Du Teufel! Er rannt auf mich los, es war mir, als wenn mich der Donner in die Erd hineinschlüg.

Hauptmann. Dankt Gott, daß Ihr noch davongekommen seid.

Ritter. Es ist nichts zu danken, ein paar Rippen sind entzwei. Wo ist der Feldscher? (Ab.)

Jagsthausen

Götz. Selbitz.

Götz. Was sagst du zu der Achtserklärung, Selbitz?

Selbitz. Es ist ein Streich von Weislingen.

Götz. Meinst du?

Selbitz. Ich meine nicht, ich weiß.

Götz. Woher?

Selbitz. Er war auf dem Reichstag, sag ich dir, er war um den Kaiser.

Götz. Wohl, so machen wir ihm wieder einen Anschlag zunichte.

Selbitz. Hoff's.

Götz. Wir wollen fort! und soll die Hasenjagd angehn.

Lager

Hauptmann. Ritter.

Hauptmann. Dabei kommt nichts heraus, ihr Herrn. Er schlägt uns einen Haufen nach dem andern, und was nicht umkommt und gefangen wird, das läuft in Gottes Namen lieber nach der Türkei als ins Lager zurück. So werden wir alle Tag schwächer. Wir müssen einmal für allemal ihm zu Leib gehen, und das mit Ernst; ich will selbst dabei sein, und er soll sehn, mit wem er zu tun hat.

Ritter. Wir sind's all zufrieden; nur ist er der Landsart so kundig, weiß alle Gänge und Schliche im Gebirg, daß er so wenig zu fangen ist wie eine Maus auf dem Kornboden.

Hauptmann. Wollen ihn schon kriegen. Erst auf Jagsthausen zu. Mag er wollen oder nicht, er muß herbei, sein Schloß zu verteidigen.

Ritter. Soll unser ganzer Hauf marschieren?

Hauptmann. Freilich! Wißt Ihr, daß wir schon um hundert geschmolzen sind?

Ritter. Drum geschwind, eh der ganze Eisklumpen auftaut; es macht warm in der Nähe, und wir stehn da wie Butter an der Sonne. (Ab.)

Gebirg und Wald

Götz. Selbitz. Trupp.

Götz. Sie kommen mit hellem Hauf. Es war hohe Zeit, daß Sickingens
Reiter zu uns stießen.

Selbitz. Wir wollen uns teilen. Ich will linker Hand um die Höhe ziehen.

Götz. Gut. Und du, Franz, führe mir die funfzig rechts durch den Wald hinauf; sie kommen über die Heide, ich will gegen ihnen halten. Georg, du bleibst um mich. Und wenn Ihr seht, daß sie mich angreifen, so fallt ungesäumt in die Seiten. Wir wollen sie patschen. Sie denken nicht, daß wir ihnen die Spitze bieten können. (Ab.)

Heide

Auf der einen Seite eine Höhe, auf der andern Wald.

Hauptmann. Exekutionszug.

Hauptmann. Er hält auf der Heide! Das ist impertinent. Er soll's büßen. Was! Den Strom nicht zu fürchten, der auf ihn losbraust?

Ritter. Ich wollt nicht, daß Ihr an der Spitze rittet; er hat das Ansehn, als ob er den ersten, der ihn anstoßen möchte, umgekehrt in die Erde pflanzen wollte. Reitet hinterdrein.

Hauptmann. Nicht gern.

Ritter. Ich bitt Euch. Ihr seid noch der Knoten von diesem Bündel
Haselruten; löst ihn auf, so knickt er sie Euch einzeln wie Riedgras.

Hauptmann. Trompeter, blas! Und ihr blast ihn weg! (Ab.)

(Selbitz hinter der Höhe hervor im Galopp.)

Selbitz. Mir nach! Sie sollen zu ihren Händen rufen: "Multipliziert euch!" (Ab.)

(Lerse aus dem Wald.)

Lerse. Götzen zu Hülf! Er ist fast umringt. Braver Selbitz, du hast schon Luft gemacht. Wir wollen die Heide mit ihren Distelköpfen besäen. (Vorbei.)

(Getümmel.)

Eine Höhe mit einem Wartturn

Selbitz verwundet. Knechte.

Selbitz. Legt mich hieher und kehrt zu Götzen.

Erster Knecht. Laßt uns bleiben, Herr, Ihr braucht unser.

Selbitz. Steig einer auf die Warte und seh, wie's geht.

Erster Knecht. Wie will ich hinaufkommen?

Zweiter Knecht. Steig auf meine Schultern, da kannst du die Lücke reichen und dir bis zur öffnung hinaufhelfen.

Erster Knecht (steigt hinauf). Ach, Herr!

Selbitz. Was siehest du?

Erster Knecht. Eure Reiter fliehen der Höhe zu.

Selbitz. Höllische Schurken! Ich wollt, sie stünden und ich hätt eine Kugel vorm Kopf. Reit einer hin! und fluch und wetter sie zurück. (Knecht ab.) Siehest du Götzen?

Knecht. Die drei schwarzen Federn seh ich mitten im Getümmel.

Selbitz. Schwimm, braver Schwimmer. Ich liege hier!

Knecht. Ein weißer Federbusch, wer ist das?

Selbitz. Der Hauptmann.

Knecht. Götz drängt sich an ihn—Bauz! Er stürzt.

Selbitz. Der Hauptmann?

Knecht. Ja, Herr.

Selbitz. Wohl! Wohl!

Knecht. Weh! Weh! Götzen seh ich nicht mehr.

Selbitz. So stirb, Selbitz!

Knecht. Ein fürchterlich Gedräng, wo er stund. Georgs blauer Busch verschwindt auch.

Selbitz. Komm herunter. Siehst du Lersen nicht?

Knecht. Nichts. Es geht alles drunter und drüber.

Selbitz. Nichts mehr. Komm! Wie halten sich Sickingens Reiter?

Knecht. Gut.—Da flieht einer nach dem Wald. Noch einer! Ein ganzer
Trupp! Götz ist hin.

Selbitz. Komm herab.

Knecht. Ich kann nicht.—Wohl! Wohl! Ich sehe Götzen! Ich sehe
Georgen!

Selbitz. Zu Pferd?

Knecht. Hoch zu Pferd! Sieg! Sieg! Sie fliehn.

Selbitz. Die Reichstruppen?

Knecht. Die Fahne mittendrin, Götz hintendrein. Sie zerstreuen sich.
Götz erreicht den Fähndrich—Er hat die Fahn—Er hält. Eine Handvoll
Menschen um ihn herum. Mein Kamerad erreicht ihn—Sie ziehn herauf.

(Götz. Georg. Lerse. Ein Trupp.)

Selbitz. Glück zu, Götz! Sieg! Sieg!

Götz (steigt vom Pferd). Teuer! Teuer! Du bist verwundt, Selbitz?

Selbitz. Du lebst und siegst! Ich habe wenig getan. Und meine Hunde von Reitern! Wie bist du davongekommen?

Götz. Diesmal galt's! Und hier Georgen dank ich das Leben, und hier Lersen dank ich's. Ich warf den Hauptmann vom Gaul. Sie stachen mein Pferd nieder und drangen auf mich ein. Georg hieb sich zu mir und sprang ab, ich wie der Blitz auf seinen Gaul, wie der Donner saß er auch wieder. Wie kamst du zum Pferd?

Georg. Einem, der nach Euch hieb, stieß ich meinen Dolch in die Gedärme, wie sich sein Harnisch in die Höhe zog. Er stürzt', und ich half Euch von einem Feind und mir zu einem Pferde.

Götz. Nun staken wir, bis sich Franz zu uns hereinschlug, und da mähten wir von innen heraus.

Lerse. Die Hunde, die ich führte, sollten von außen hineinmähen, bis sich unsere Sensen begegnet hätten; aber sie flohen wie Reichsknechte.

Götz. Es flohe Freund und Feind. Nur du kleiner Hauf hieltest mir den Rücken frei; ich hatte mit den Kerls vor mir genug zu tun. Der Fall ihres Hauptmanns half mir sie schütteln, und sie flohen. Ich habe ihre Fahne und wenig Gefangene.

Selbitz. Der Hauptmann ist Euch entwischt?

Götz. Sie hatten ihn inzwischen gerettet. Kommt, Kinder! kommt, Selbitz!—Macht eine Bahre von ästen;—du kannst nicht aufs Pferd. Kommt in mein Schloß. Sie sind zerstreut. Aber unser sind wenig, und ich weiß nicht, ob sie Truppen nachzuschicken haben. Ich will euch bewirten, meine Freunde. Ein Glas Wein schmeckt auf so einen Strauß.

Lager

Hauptmann.

Hauptmann. Ich möcht euch alle mit eigner Hand umbringen! Was, fortlaufen! Er hatte keine Handvoll Leute mehr! Fortzulaufen, vor einem Mann! Es wird's niemand glauben, als wer über uns zu lachen Lust hat.—Reit herum, Ihr, und Ihr, und Ihr. Wo ihr von unsern zerstreuten Knechten findt, bringt sie zurück oder stecht sie nieder. Wir müssen diese Scharten auswetzen, und wenn die Klingen drüber zugrunde gehen sollten.

Jagsthausen

Götz. Lerse. Georg.

Götz. Wir dürfen keinen Augenblick säumen! Arme Jungen, ich darf euch keine Rast gönnen. Jagt geschwind herum und sucht noch Reiter aufzutreiben. Bestellt sie alle nach Weilern, da sind sie am sichersten. Wenn wir zögern, so ziehen sie mir vors Schloß. (Die zwei ab.) Ich muß einen auf Kundschaft ausjagen. Es fängt an heiß zu werden. Und wenn es nur noch brave Kerls wären! Aber so ist's die Menge. (Ab.)

(Sickingen. Maria.)

Maria. Ich bitte Euch, lieber Sickingen, geht nicht von meinem Bruder!
Seine Reiter, Selbitzens, Eure sind zerstreut; er ist allein,
Selbitz ist verwundet auf sein Schloß gebracht, und ich fürchte alles.

Sickingen. Seid ruhig, ich gehe nicht weg.

(Götz kommt.)

Götz. Kommt in die Kirch, der Pater wartet. Ihr sollt mir in einer
Viertelstund ein Paar sein.

Sickingen. Laßt mich hier.

Götz. In die Kirch sollt Ihr jetzt.

Sickingen. Gern—und darnach?

Götz. Darnach sollt Ihr Eurer Wege gehn.

Sickingen. Götz!

Götz. Wollt Ihr nicht in die Kirche?

Sickingen. Kommt, kommt!

Lager

Hauptmann. Ritter.

Hauptmann. Wie viel sind's in allem?

Ritter. Hundertundfunfzig.

Hauptmann. Von vierhunderten! Das ist arg. Jetzt gleich auf und grad gegen Jagsthausen zu, eh er sich erholt und sich uns wieder in Weg stellt.

III. Akt, Szene 3

Jagsthausen

Götz. Elisabeth. Maria. Sickingen.

Götz. Gott segne euch, geb euch glückliche Tage, und behalte die, die er euch abzieht, für eure Kinder.

Elisabeth. Und die laß er sein, wie ihr seid: rechtschaffen! Und dann laßt sie werden, was sie wollen.

Sickingen. Ich dank euch. Und dank Euch, Maria. Ich führte Euch an den Altar, und Ihr sollt mich zur Glückseligkeit führen.

Maria. Wir wollen zusammen eine Pilgrimschaft nach diesem fremden gelobten Lande antreten.

Götz. Glück auf die Reise!

Maria. So ist's nicht gemeint, wir verlassen Euch nicht.

Götz. Ihr sollt, Schwester.

Maria. Du bist sehr unbarmherzig, Bruder!

Götz. Und Ihr zärtlicher als vorsehend.

(Georg kommt.)

Georg (heimlich). Ich kann niemand auftreiben. Ein einziger war geneigt; darnach veränderte er sich und wollte nicht.

Götz. Gut, Georg. Das Glück fängt mir an wetterwendisch zu werden.
Ich ahnt's aber. (Laut.) Sickingen, ich bitt Euch, geht noch diesen
Abend. Beredet Marie. Sie ist Eure Frau. Laßt sie's fühlen. Wenn
Weiber quer in unsere Unternehmung treten, ist unser Feind im freien
Feld sichrer als sonst in der Burg.

(Knecht kommt.)

Knecht (leise). Herr, das Reichsfähnlein ist auf dem Marsch, grad hieher, sehr schnell.

Götz. Ich hab sie mit Rutenstreichen geweckt! Wieviel sind ihrer?

Knecht. Ungefähr zweihundert. Sie können nicht zwei Stunden mehr von hier sein.

Götz. Noch überm Fluß?

Knecht. Ja, Herr.

Götz. Wenn ich nur funfzig Mann hätte, sie sollten mir nicht herüber.
Hast du Lersen nicht gesehen?

Knecht. Nein, Herr.

Götz. Biet allen, sie sollen sich bereit halten.—Es muß geschieden sein, meine Lieben. Weine, meine gute Marie, es werden Augenblicke kommen, wo du dich freuen wirst. Es ist besser, du weinst an deinem Hochzeittag, als daß übergroße Freude der Vorbote künftigen Elends wäre. Lebt wohl, Marie. Lebt wohl, Bruder.

Maria. Ich kann nicht von Euch, Schwester. Lieber Bruder, laß uns.
Achtest du meinen Mann so wenig, daß du in dieser Extremität seine
Hülfe verschmähst?

Götz. Ja, es ist weit mit mir gekommen. Vielleicht bin ich meinem
Sturz nahe. Ihr beginnt zu leben, und ihr sollt euch von meinem
Schicksal trennen. Ich hab eure Pferde zu satteln befohlen. Ihr müßt
gleich fort.

Maria. Bruder! Bruder!

Elisabeth (zu Sickingen). Gebt ihm nach! Geht!

Sickingen. Liebe Marie, laßt uns gehen.

Maria. Du auch? Mein Herz wird brechen.

Götz. So bleib denn. In wenigen Stunden wird meine Burg umringt sein.

Maria. Weh! Weh!

Götz. Wir werden uns verteidigen, so gut wir können.

Maria. Mutter Gottes, hab Erbarmen mit uns!

Götz. Und am Ende werden wir sterben, oder uns ergeben.—Du wirst deinen edeln Mann mit mir in ein Schicksal geweint haben.

Maria. Du marterst mich.

Götz. Bleib! Bleib! Wir werden zusammen gefangen werden. Sickingen, du wirst mit mir in die Grube fallen! Ich hoffte, du solltest mir heraushelfen.

Maria. Wir wollen fort. Schwester, Schwester!

Götz. Bringt sie in Sicherheit, und dann erinnert Euch meiner.

Sickingen. Ich will ihr Bette nicht besteigen, bis ich Euch außer
Gefahr weiß.

Götz. Schwester—liebe Schwester! (Küßt sie.)

Sickingen. Fort, fort!

Götz. Noch einen Augenblick—Ich seh Euch wieder. Tröstet Euch. Wir sehn uns wieder.

(Sickingen, Maria ab.)

Götz. Ich trieb sie, und da sie geht, möcht ich sie halten.
Elisabeth, du bleibst bei mir!

Elisabeth. Bis in den Tod. (Ab.)

Götz. Wen Gott lieb hat, dem geb er so eine Frau!

(Georg kommt.)

Georg. Sie sind in der Nähe, ich habe sie vom Turn gesehen. Die
Sonne ging auf, und ich sah ihre Piken blinken. Wie ich sie sah,
wollt mir's nicht bänger werden, als einer Katze vor einer Armee Mäuse.
Zwar wir spielen die Ratten.

Götz. Seht nach den Torriegeln. Verrammelt's inwendig mit Balken und Steinen. (Georg ab.) Wir wollen ihre Geduld für'n Narren halten, und ihre Tapferkeit sollen sie mir an ihren eigenen Nägeln verkäuen. (Trompeter von außen.) Aha! ein rotröckiger Schurke, der uns die Frage vorlegen wird, ob wir Hundsfötter sein wollen. (Er geht ans Fenster.) Was soll's?

(Man hört in der Ferne reden.)

Götz (in seinen Bart). Einen Strick um deinen Hals.

(Trompeter redet fort.)

Götz. "Beleidiger der Majestät!"—Die Aufforderung hat ein Pfaff gemacht.

(Trompeter endet.)

Götz (antwortet). Mich ergeben! Auf Gnad und Ungnad! Mit wem redet
Ihr! Bin ich ein Räuber! Sag deinem Hauptmann: Vor Ihro Kaiserliche
Majestät hab ich, wie immer, schuldigen Respekt. Er aber, sag's ihm,
er kann mich—(Schmeißt das Fenster zu.)

Belagerung. Küche

Elisabeth. Götz zu ihr.

Götz. Du hast viel Arbeit, arme Frau.

Elisabeth. Ich wollt, ich hätte sie lang. Wir werden schwerlich lang aushalten können.

Götz. Wir hatten nicht Zeit, uns zu versehen.

Elisabeth. Und die vielen Leute, die Ihr zeither gespeist habt. Mit dem Wein sind wir auch schon auf der Neige.

Götz. Wenn wir nur auf einen gewissen Punkt halten, daß sie Kapitulation vorschlagen. Wir tun ihnen brav Abbruch. Sie schießen den ganzen Tag und verwunden unsere Mauern und knicken unsere Scheiben. Lerse ist ein braver Kerl; er schleicht mit seiner Büchse herum; wo sich einer zu nahe wagt, blaff, liegt er.

Knecht. Kohlen, gnädige Frau.

Götz. Was gibt's?

Knecht. Die Kugeln sind alle, wir wollen neue gießen.

Götz. Wie steht's Pulver?

Knecht. So ziemlich. Wir sparen unsere Schüsse wohl aus.

Saal

Lerse mit einer Kugelform. Knecht mit Kohlen.

Lerse. Stell sie daher, und seht, wo ihr im Hause Blei kriegt. Inzwischen will ich hier zugreifen. (Hebt ein Fenster aus und schlägt die Scheiben ein.) Alle Vorteile gelten.—So geht's in der Welt, weiß kein Mensch, was aus den Dingen werden kann. Der Glaser, der die Scheiben faßte, dachte gewiß nicht, daß das Blei einem seiner Urenkel garstiges Kopfweh machen könnte! Und da mich mein Vater zeugte, dachte er nicht, welcher Vogel unter dem Himmel, welcher Wurm auf der Erde mich fressen möchte.

(Georg kommt mit einer Dachrinne.)

Georg. Da hast du Blei. Wenn du nur mit der Hälfte triffst, so entgeht keiner, der Ihro Majestät ansagen kann: "Herr, wir haben schlecht bestanden."

Lerse (haut davon). Ein brav Stück.

Georg. Der Regen mag sich einen andern Weg suchen! Ich bin nicht bang davor; ein braver Reiter und ein rechter Regen kommen überall durch.

Lerse. (Er gießt.) Halt den Löffel. (Geht ans Fenster.) Da zieht so ein Reichsknappe mit der Büchse herum; sie denken, wir haben uns verschossen. Er soll die Kugel versuchen, warm wie sie aus der Pfanne kommt. (Lädt.)

Georg (lehnt den Löffel an). Laß mich sehn.

Lerse (schießt). Da liegt der Spatz.

Georg. Der schoß vorhin nach mir (sie gießen), wie ich zum
Dachfenster hinausstieg und die Rinne holen wollte. Er traf eine
Taube, die nicht weit von mir saß, sie stürzt' in die Rinne; ich dankt
ihm für den Braten und stieg mit der doppelten Beute wieder herein.

Lerse. Nun wollen wir wohl laden und im ganzen Schloß herumgehen, unser Mittagessen verdienen.

(Götz kommt.)

Götz. Bleib, Lerse! Ich habe mit dir zu reden! Dich, Georg, will ich nicht von der Jagd abhalten.

(Georg ab.)

Götz. Sie entbieten mir einen Vertrag.

Lerse. Ich will zu ihnen hinaus und hören, was es soll.

Götz. Es wird sein: ich soll mich auf Bedingungen in ritterlich
Gefängnis stellen.

Lerse. Das ist nichts. Wie wär's, wenn sie uns freien Abzug eingestünden, da Ihr doch von Sickingen keinen Entsatz erwartet? Wir vergrüben Geld und Silber, wo sie's mit keiner Wünschelrute finden sollten, überließen ihnen das Schloß, und kämen mit Manier davon.

Götz. Sie lassen uns nicht.

Lerse. Es kommt auf eine Prob an. Wir wollen um sicher Geleit rufen, und ich will hinaus. (Ab.)

Saal

Götz, Elisabeth, Georg, Knechte bei Tische.

Götz. So bringt uns die Gefahr zusammen. Laßt's euch schmecken, meine Freunde! Vergeßt das Trinken nicht. Die Flasche ist leer. Noch eine, liebe Frau. (Elisabeth zuckt die Achsel.) Ist keine mehr da?

Elisabeth (leise). Noch eine; ich hab sie für dich beiseite gesetzt.

Götz. Nicht doch, Liebe! Gib sie heraus. Sie brauchen Stärkung, nicht ich; es ist ja meine Sache.

Elisabeth. Holt sie draußen im Schrank!

Götz. Es ist die letzte. Und mir ist's, als ob wir nicht zu sparen
Ursach hätten. Ich bin lange nicht so vergnügt gewesen. (Schenkt ein.
) Es lebe der Kaiser!

Alle. Er lebe!

Götz. Das soll unser vorletztes Wort sein, wenn wir sterben! Ich lieb ihn, denn wir haben einerlei Schicksal. Und ich bin noch glücklicher als er. Er muß den Reichsständen die Mäuse fangen, inzwischen die Ratten seine Besitztümer annagen. Ich weiß, er wünscht sich manchmal lieber tot, als länger die Seele eines so krüppligen Körpers zu sein. (Schenkt ein.) Es geht just noch ein mal herum. Und wenn unser Blut anfängt, auf die Neige zu gehen, wie der Wein in dieser Flasche erst schwach, dann tropfenweise rinnt (tröpfelt das Letzte in sein Glas), was soll unser letztes Wort sein?

Georg. Es lebe die Freiheit!

Götz. Es lebe die Freiheit!

Alle. Es lebe die Freiheit!

Götz. Und wenn die uns überlebt, können wir ruhig sterben. Denn wir sehen im Geist unsere Enkel glücklich und die Kaiser unsrer Enkel glücklich. Wenn die Diener der Fürsten so edel und frei dienen wie ihr mir, wenn die Fürsten dem Kaiser dienen, wie ich ihm dienen möchte-Georg. Da müßt's viel anders werden.

Götz. So viel nicht, als es scheinen möchte. Hab ich nicht unter den Fürsten treffliche Menschen gekannt, und sollte das Geschlecht ausgestorben sein? Gute Menschen, die in sich und ihren Untertanen glücklich waren; die einen edeln freien Nachbar neben sich leiden konnten und ihn weder fürchteten noch beneideten; denen das Herz aufging, wenn sie viel ihresgleichen bei sich zu Tisch sahen und nicht erst die Ritter zu Hofschranzen umzuschaffen brauchten, um mit ihnen zu leben.

Georg. Habt Ihr solche Herrn gekannt?,

Götz. Wohl. Ich erinnere mich zeitlebens, wie der Landgraf von Hanau eine Jagd gab und die Fürsten und Herrn, die zugegen waren, unter freiem Himmel speisten und das Landvolk all herbeilief, sie zu sehen. Das war keine Maskerade, die er sich selbst zu Ehren angestellt hatte. Aber die vollen runden Köpfe der Bursche und Mädel, die roten Backen alle, und die wohlhäbigen Männer und stattlichen Greise, und alles fröhliche Gesichter, und wie sie teilnahmen an der Herrlichkeit ihres Herrn, der auf Gottes Boden unter ihnen sich ergetzte!

Georg. Das war ein Herr, vollkommen wie Ihr.

Götz. Sollten wir nicht hoffen, daß mehr solcher Fürsten auf einmal herrschen können? Daß Verehrung des Kaisers, Fried und Freundschaft der Nachbarn und Lieb der Untertanen der kostbarste Familienschatz sein wird, der auf Enkel und Urenkel erbt? Jeder würde das Seinige erhalten und in sich selbst vermehren, statt daß sie jetzo nicht zuzunehmen glauben, wenn sie nicht andere verderben.

Georg. Würden wir hernach auch reiten?

Götz. Wollte Gott, es gäbe keine unruhige Köpfe in ganz Deutschland! Wir würden noch immer zu tun genug finden. Wir wollten die Gebirge von Wölfen säubern, wollten unserm ruhig ackernden Nachbar einen Braten aus dem Wald holen und dafür die Suppe mit ihm essen. Wär uns das nicht genug, wir wollten uns mit unsern Brüdern, wie Cherubim mit flammenden Schwertern, vor die Grenzen des Reichs gegen die Wölfe die Türken, gegen die Füchse die Franzosen lagern und zugleich unsers teuern Kaisers sehr ausgesetzte Länder und die Ruhe des Reichs beschützen. Das wäre ein Leben! Georg! wenn man seine Haut für die allgemeine Glückseligkeit dransetzte. (Georg springt auf.) Wo willst du hin?

Georg. Ach ich vergaß, daß wir eingesperrt sind—und der Kaiser hat uns eingesperrt—und unsere Haut davonzubringen, setzen wir unsere Haut dran?

Götz. Sei gutes Muts.

(Lerse kommt.)

Lerse. Freiheit! Freiheit! Das sind schlechte Menschen, unschlüssige bedächtige Esel. Ihr sollt abziehen mit Gewehr, Pferden und Rüstung. Proviant sollt Ihr dahintenlassen.

Götz. Sie werden sich kein Zahnweh dran kauen.

Lerse (heimlich). Habt Ihr das Silber versteckt?

Götz. Nein! Frau, geh mit Franzen, er hat dir was zu sagen.

(Alle ab.)

Schloßhof

Georg (im Stall, singt).

Es fing ein Knab ein Vögelein,

Hm! Hm! Da lacht' er in den Käfig 'nein,

Hm! Hm!

So! So!

Hm! Hm!

Der freut' sich traun so läppisch,

Hm! Hm! Und griff hinein so täppisch,

Hm! Hm!

So! So!

Hm! Hm!

Da flog das Meislein auf ein Haus,

Hm! Hm! Und lacht' den dummen Buben aus,

Hm! Hm!

So! So!

Hm! Hm!

Götz. Wie steht's?

Georg (führt sein Pferd heraus). Sie sind gesattelt.

Götz. Du bist fix.

Georg. Wie der Vogel aus dem Käfig.

(Alle die Belagerten.)

Götz. Ihr habt eure Büchsen? Nicht doch! Geht hinauf und nehmt die besten aus dem Rüstschrank, es geht in einem hin. Wir wollen vorausreiten.

Georg.

Hm! Hm!

So! So!

Hm! Hm! (Ab.)

Saal

Zwei Knechte am Rüstschrank.

Erster Knecht. Ich nehm die.

Zweiter Knecht. Ich die. Da ist noch eine schönere.

Erster Knecht. Nicht doch! Mach, daß du fortkommst.

Zweiter Knecht. Horch!

Erster Knecht (springt ans Fenster). Hilf, heiliger Gott! sie ermorden unsern Herrn. Er liegt vom Pferd! Georg stürzt!

Zweiter Knecht. Wo retten wir uns! An der Mauer den Nußbaum hinunter ins Feld. (Ab.)

Erster Knecht. Franz hält sich noch, ich will zu ihm. Wenn sie sterben, mag ich nicht leben. (Ab.)

Vierter Akt

IV. Akt

Wirtshaus zu Heilbronn

Götz.

Götz. Ich komme mir vor wie der böse Geist, den der Kapuziner in einen Sack beschwur. Ich arbeite mich ab und fruchte mir nichts. Die Meineidigen!

(Elisabeth kommt.)

Götz. Was für Nachrichten, Elisabeth, von meinen lieben Getreuen?

Elisabeth. Nichts Gewisses. Einige sind erstochen, einige liegen im
Turn. Es konnte oder wollte niemand mir sie näher bezeichnen.

Götz. Ist das Belohnung der Treue? des kindlichen Gehorsams?—Auf daß dir's wohl gehe und du lange lebest auf Erden!

Elisabeth. Lieber Mann, schilt unsern himmlischen Vater nicht. Sie haben ihren Lohn, er ward mit ihnen geboren, ein freies edles Herz. Laß sie gefangen sein, sie sind frei! Gib auf die deputierten Räte acht, die großen goldnen Ketten stehen ihnen zu Gesicht-Götz. Wie dem Schwein das Halsband. Ich möchte Georgen und Franzen geschlossen sehn!

Elisabeth. Es wäre ein Anblick, um Engel weinen zu machen.

Götz. Ich wollt nicht weinen. Ich wollte die Zähne zusammenbeißen und an meinem Grimm kauen. In Ketten meine Augäpfel! Ihr lieben Jungen, hättet ihr mich nicht geliebt!—Ich würde mich nicht satt an ihnen sehen können.—Im Namen des Kaisers ihr Wort nicht zu halten!

Elisabeth. Entschlagt Euch dieser Gedanken. Bedenkt, daß Ihr vor den Räten erscheinen sollt. Ihr seid nicht gestellt, ihnen wohl zu begegnen, und ich fürchte alles.

Götz. Was wollen sie mir anhaben?

Elisabeth. Der Gerichtsbote!

Götz. Esel der Gerechtigkeit! Schleppt ihre Säcke zur Mühle, und ihren Kehrig aufs Feld. Was gibt's?

(Gerichtsdiener kommt.)

Gerichtsdiener. Die Herren Kommissarii sind auf dem Rathause versammelt und schicken nach Euch.

Götz. Ich komme.

Gerichtsdiener. Ich werde Euch begleiten.

Götz. Viel Ehre.

Elisabeth. Mäßigt Euch.

Götz. Sei außer Sorgen. (Ab.)

Rathaus

Kaiserliche Räte. Hauptmann. Ratsherren von Heilbronn.

Ratsherr. Wir haben auf Euern Befehl die stärksten und tapfersten
Bürger versammelt; sie warten hier in der Nähe auf Euern Wink, um sich
Berlichingens zu bemeistern.

Erster Rat. Wir werden Ihro Kaiserlichen Majestät Eure
Bereitwilligkeit, Ihrem höchsten Befehl zu gehorchen, mit vielem
Vergnügen zu rühmen wissen.—Es sind Handwerker?

Ratsherr. Schmiede, Weinschröter, Zimmerleute, Männer mit geübten
Fäusten und hier wohl beschlagen (auf die Brust deutend).

Rat. Wohl.

(Gerichtsdiener kommt.)

Gerichtsdiener. Götz von Berlichingen wartet vor der Tür.

Rat. Laßt ihn herein.

(Götz kommt.)

Götz. Gott grüß euch, ihr Herrn, was wollt ihr mit mir?

Rat. Zuerst, daß Ihr bedenkt: wo Ihr seid? und vor wem?

Götz. Bei meinem Eid, ich verkenn euch nicht, meine Herrn.

Rat. Ihr tut Eure Schuldigkeit.

Götz. Von ganzem Herzen.

Rat. Setzt Euch.

Götz. Da unten hin? Ich kann stehn. Das Stühlchen riecht so nach armen Sündern, wie überhaupt die ganze Stube.

Rat. So steht!

Götz. Zur Sache, wenn's gefällig ist.

Rat. Wir werden in der Ordnung verfahren.

Götz. Bin's wohl zufrieden, wollt, es wär von jeher geschehen.

Rat. Ihr wißt, wie Ihr auf Gnad und Ungnad in unsere Hände kamt.

Götz. Was gebt Ihr mir, wenn ich's vergesse?

Rat. Wenn ich Euch Bescheidenheit geben könnte, würd ich Eure Sache gut machen.

Götz. Gut machen! Wenn Ihr das könntet! Dazu gehört freilich mehr als zum Verderben.

Schreiber. Soll ich das alles protokollieren?

Rat. Was zur Handlung gehört.

Götz. Meinetwegen dürft Ihr's drucken lassen.

Rat. Ihr wart in der Gewalt des Kaisers, dessen väterliche Gnade an den Platz der majestätischen Gerechtigkeit trat, Euch anstatt eines Kerkers Heilbronn, eine seiner geliebten Städte, zum Aufenthalt anwies. Ihr verspracht mit einem Eid, Euch, wie es einem Ritter geziemt, zu stellen und das Weitere demütig zu erwarten.

Götz. Wohl, und ich bin hier und warte.

Rat. Und wir sind hier, Euch Ihro Kaiserlichen Majestät Gnade und Huld zu verkündigen. Sie verzeiht Euch Eure übertretungen, spricht Euch von der Acht und aller wohlverdienten Strafe los, welches Ihr mit untertänigem Dank erkennen und dagegen die Urfehde abschwören werdet, welche Euch hiermit vorgelesen werden soll.

Götz. Ich bin Ihro Majestät treuer Knecht wie immer. Noch ein Wort, eh Ihr weitergeht: Meine Leute, wo sind die? Was soll mit ihnen werden?

Rat. Das geht Euch nichts an.

Götz. So wende der Kaiser sein Angesicht von Euch, wenn Ihr in Not steckt! Sie waren meine Gesellen, und sind's. Wo habt Ihr sie hingebracht?

Rat. Wir sind Euch davon keine Rechnung schuldig.

Götz. Ah! Ich dachte nicht, daß Ihr nicht einmal zu dem verbunden seid, was Ihr versprecht, geschweige-Rat. Unsere Kommission ist, Euch die Urfehde vorzulegen. Unterwerft Euch dem Kaiser, und Ihr werdet einen Weg finden, um Eurer Gesellen Leben und Freiheit zu flehen.

Götz. Euern Zettel.

Rat. Schreiber, leset!

Schreiber. "Ich Götz von Berlichingen bekenne öffentlich durch diesen Brief: Daß, da ich mich neulich gegen Kaiser und Reich rebellischerweise aufgelehnt"-Götz. Das ist nicht wahr. Ich bin kein Rebell, habe gegen Ihro Kaiserliche Majestät nichts verbrochen, und das Reich geht mich nichts an.

Rat. Mäßigt Euch und hört weiter.

Götz. Ich will nichts weiter hören. Tret einer auf und zeuge! Hab ich wider den Kaiser, wider das Haus österreich nur einen Schritt getan? Hab ich nicht von jeher durch alle Handlungen bewiesen, daß ich besser als einer fühle, was Deutschland seinen Regenten schuldig ist? und besonders was die Kleinen, die Ritter und Freien, ihrem Kaiser schuldig sind? Ich müßte ein Schurke sein, wenn ich mich könnte bereden lassen, das zu unterschreiben.

Rat. Und doch haben wir gemessene Ordre, Euch in der Güte zu überreden, oder im Entstehungsfall Euch in den Turn zu werfen.

Götz. In Turn? mich?

Rat. Und daselbst könnt Ihr Euer Schicksal von der Gerechtigkeit erwarten, wenn Ihr es nicht aus den Händen der Gnade empfangen wollt.

Götz. In Turn! Ihr mißbraucht die Kaiserliche Gewalt. In Turn! Das ist sein Befehl nicht. Was! mir erst, die Verräter! eine Falle zu stellen, und ihren Eid, ihr ritterlich Wort zum Speck drin aufzuhängen! Mir dann ritterlich Gefängnis zusagen, und die Zusage wieder brechen.

Rat. Einem Räuber sind wir keine Treue schuldig.

Götz. Trügst du nicht das Ebenbild des Kaisers, das ich in dem gesudeltsten Konterfei verehre, du solltest mir den Räuber fressen oder dran erwürgen! Ich bin in einer ehrlichen Fehd begriffen. Du könntest Gott danken und dich vor der Welt groß machen, wenn du in deinem Leben eine so edle Tat getan hättest, wie die ist, um welcher willen ich gefangen sitze.

Rat (winkt dem Ratsherrn, der zieht die Schelle).

Götz. Nicht um des leidigen Gewinsts willen, nicht um Land und Leute unbewehrten Kleinen wegzukapern, bin ich ausgezogen. Meinen Jungen zu befreien, und mich meiner Haut zu wehren! Seht Ihr was Unrechts dran? Kaiser und Reich hätten unsere Not nicht in ihrem Kopfkissen gefühlt. Ich habe Gott sei Dank noch eine Hand, und habe wohl getan, sie zu brauchen.

(Bürger treten herein, Stangen in der Hand, Wehren an der Seite.)

Götz. Was soll das?

Rat. Ihr wollt nicht hören. Fangt ihn!

Götz. Ist das die Meinung? Wer kein ungrischer Ochs ist, komm mir nicht zu nah! Er soll von dieser meiner rechten eisernen Hand eine solche Ohrfeige kriegen, die ihm Kopfweh, Zahnweh und alles Weh der Erden aus dem Grund kurieren soll. (Sie machen sich an ihn, er schlägt den einen zu Boden, und reißt einem andern die Wehre von der Seite, sie weichen.) Kommt! Kommt! Es wäre mir angenehm, den Tapfersten unter euch kennenzulernen.

Rat. Gebt Euch.

Götz. Mit dem Schwert in der Hand! Wißt Ihr, daß es jetzt nur an mir läge, mich durch alle diese Hasenjäger durchzuschlagen und das weite Feld zu gewinnen? Aber ich will Euch lehren, wie man Wort hält. Versprecht mir ritterlich Gefängnis, und ich gebe mein Schwert weg und bin wie vorher Euer Gefangener.

Rat. Mit dem Schwert in der Hand wollt Ihr mit dem Kaiser rechten?

Götz. Behüte Gott! Nur mit Euch und Eurer edlen Kompanie.—Ihr könnt nach Hause gehn, gute Leute. Für die Versäumnis kriegt ihr nichts, und zu holen ist hier nichts als Beulen.

Rat. Greift ihn. Gibt euch eure Liebe zu euerm Kaiser nicht mehr
Mut?

Götz. Nicht mehr, als ihnen der Kaiser Pflaster gibt, die Wunden zu heilen, die sich ihr Mut holen könnte.

(Gerichtsdiener kommt.)

Gerichtsdiener. Eben ruft der Türner: es zieht ein Trupp von mehr als zweihunderten nach der Stadt zu. Unversehens sind sie hinter der Weinhöhe hervorgedrungen und drohen unsern Mauern.

Ratsherr. Weh uns! was ist das?

(Wache kommt.)

Wache. Franz von Sickingen hält vor dem Schlag und läßt euch sagen: Er habe gehört, wie unwürdig man an seinem Schwager bundbrüchig geworden sei, wie die Herrn von Heilbronn allen Vorschub täten. Er verlange Rechenschaft, sonst wolle er binnen einer Stunde die Stadt an vier Ecken anzünden und sie der Plünderung preisgeben.

Götz. Braver Schwager!

Rat. Tretet ab, Götz!—Was ist zu tun?

Ratsherr. Habt Mitleiden mit uns und unserer Bürgerschaft! Sickingen ist unbändig in seinem Zorn, er ist Mann, es zu halten.

Rat. Sollen wir uns und dem Kaiser die Gerechtsame vergeben?

Hauptmann. Wenn wir nur Leute hätten, sie zu behaupten. So aber könnten wir umkommen, und die Sache wäre nur desto schlimmer. Wir gewinnen im Nachgeben.

Ratsherr. Wir wollen Götzen ansprechen, für uns ein gut Wort einzulegen. Mir ist's, als wenn ich die Stadt schon in Flammen sähe.

Rat. Laßt Götzen herein.

Götz. Was soll's?

Rat. Du würdest wohl tun, deinen Schwager von seinem rebellischen Vorhaben abzumahnen. Anstatt dich vom Verderben zu retten, stürzt er dich tiefer hinein, indem er sich zu deinem Falle gesellt.

Götz (sieht Elisabeth an der Tür, heimlich zu ihr). Geh hin! Sag ihm: er soll unverzüglich hereinbrechen, soll hieher kommen, nur der Stadt kein Leids tun. Wenn sich die Schurken hier widersetzen, soll er Gewalt brauchen. Es liegt mir nichts dran umzukommen, wenn sie nur alle mit erstochen werden.

Ein großer Saal auf dem Rathaus

Sickingen. Götz. Das ganze Rathaus ist mit Sickingens Reitern besetzt.

Götz. Das war Hülfe vom Himmel! Wie kommst du so erwünscht und unvermutet, Schwager?

Sickingen. Ohne Zauberei. Ich hatte zwei, drei Boten ausgeschickt, zu hören, wie dir's ginge? Auf die Nachricht von ihrem Meineid macht ich mich auf den Weg. Nun haben wir sie.

Götz. Ich verlange nichts als ritterliche Haft.

Sickingen. Du bist zu ehrlich. Dich nicht einmal des Vorteils zu bedienen, den der Rechtschaffene über den Meineidigen hat! Sie sitzen im Unrecht, wir wollen ihnen keine Kissen unterlegen. Sie haben die Befehle des Kaisers schändlich mißbraucht. Und wie ich Ihro Majestät kenne, darfst du sicher auf mehr dringen. Es ist zu wenig.

Götz. Ich bin von jeher mit wenigem zufrieden gewesen.

Sickingen. Und bist von jeher zu kurz gekommen. Meine Meinung ist: sie sollen deine Knechte aus dem Gefängnis und dich zusamt ihnen auf deinen Eid nach deiner Burg ziehen lassen. Du magst versprechen, nicht aus deiner Terminei zu gehen, und wirst immer besser sein als hier.

Götz. Sie werden sagen: Meine Güter seien dem Kaiser heimgefallen.

Sickingen. So sagen wir: Du wolltest zur Miete drin wohnen, bis sie dir der Kaiser wieder zu Lehn gäbe. Laß sie sich wenden wie Aale in der Reuse, sie sollen uns nicht entschlüpfen. Sie werden von Kaiserlicher Majestät reden, von ihrem Auftrag. Das kann uns einerlei sein. Ich kenne den Kaiser auch und gelte was bei ihm. Er hat immer gewünscht, dich unter seinem Heer zu haben. Du wirst nicht lang auf deinem Schlosse sitzen, so wirst du aufgerufen werden.

Götz. Wollte Gott bald, eh ich 's Fechten verlerne.

Sickingen. Der Mut verlernt sich nicht, wie er sich nicht lernt. Sorge für nichts! Wenn deine Sachen in der Ordnung sind, geh ich nach Hof, denn meine Unternehmung fängt an reif zu werden. Günstige Aspekten deuten mir: "Brich auf!" Es ist mir nichts übrig, als die Gesinnung des Kaisers zu sondieren. Trier und Pfalz vermuten eher des Himmels Einfall, als daß ich ihnen übern Kopf kommen werde. Und ich will kommen wie ein Hagelwetter! Und wenn wir unser Schicksal machen können, so sollst du bald der Schwager eines Kurfürsten sein. Ich hoffte auf deine Faust bei dieser Unternehmung.

Götz (besieht seine Hand). Oh! das deutete der Traum, den ich hatte, als ich tags darauf Marien an Weislingen versprach. Er sagte mir Treu zu, und hielt meine rechte Hand so fest, daß sie aus den Armschienen ging, wie abgebrochen. Ach! Ich bin in diesem Augenblick wehrloser, als ich war, da sie mir abgeschossen wurde. Weislingen! Weislingen!

Sickingen. Vergiß einen Verräter. Wir wollen seine Anschläge vernichten, sein Ansehn untergraben, und Gewissen und Schande sollen ihn zu Tode fressen. Ich seh, ich seh im Geist meine Feinde, deine Feinde niedergestürzt. Götz, nur noch ein halb Jahr!

Götz. Deine Seele fliegt hoch. Ich weiß nicht; seit einiger Zeit wollen sich in der meinigen keine fröhlichen Aussichten eröffnen.—Ich war schon mehr im Unglück, schon einmal gefangen, und so, wie mir's jetzt ist, war mir's niemals.

Sickingen. Glück macht Mut. Kommt zu den Perücken! Sie haben lang genug den Vortrag gehabt, laß uns einmal die Müh übernehmen. (Ab.)

Adelheidens Schloß

Adelheid. Weislingen.

Adelheid. Das ist verhaßt!

Weislingen. Ich hab die Zähne zusammengebissen. Ein so schöner Anschlag, so glücklich vollführt, und am Ende ihn auf sein Schloß zu lassen! Der verdammte Sickingen!

Adelheid. Sie hätten's nicht tun sollen.

Weislingen. Sie saßen fest. Was konnten sie machen? Sickingen drohte mit Feuer und Schwert, der hochmütige jähzornige Mann! Ich haß ihn. Sein Ansehn nimmt zu wie ein Strom, der nur einmal ein paar Bäche gefressen hat, die übrigen folgen von selbst.

Adelheid. Hatten sie keinen Kaiser?

Weislingen. Liebe Frau! Er ist nur der Schatten davon, er wird alt und mißmutig. Wie er hörte, was geschehen war, und ich nebst den übrigen Regimentsräten eiferte, sagte er: "Laßt ihnen Ruh! Ich kann dem alten Götz wohl das Plätzchen gönnen, und wenn er da still ist, was habt ihr über ihn zu klagen?" Wir redeten vom Wohl des Staats. "Oh!" sagt' er, "hätt' ich von jeher Räte gehabt, die meinen unruhigen Geist mehr auf das Glück einzelner Menschen gewiesen hätten!"

Adelheid. Er verliert den Geist eines Regenten.

Weislingen. Wir zogen auf Sickingen los.—"Er ist mein treuer Diener", sagt' er; "hat er's nicht auf meinen Befehl getan, so tat er doch besser meinen Willen als meine Bevollmächtigten, und ich kann's gutheißen, vor oder nach."

Adelheid. Man möchte sich zerreißen.

Weislingen. Ich habe deswegen noch nicht alle Hoffnung aufgegeben. Er ist auf sein ritterlich Wort auf sein Schloß gelassen, sich da still zu halten. Das ist ihm unmöglich; wir wollen bald eine Ursach wider ihn haben.

Adelheid. Und desto eher, da wir hoffen können, der Kaiser werde bald aus der Welt gehn, und Karl, sein trefflicher Nachfolger, majestätischere Gesinnungen verspricht.

Weislingen. Karl? Er ist noch weder gewählt noch gekrönt.

Adelheid. Wer wünscht und hofft es nicht?

Weislingen. Du hast einen großen Begriff von seinen Eigenschaften; fast sollte man denken, du sähest sie mit andern Augen.

Adelheid. Du beleidigst mich, Weislingen. Kennst du mich für das?

Weislingen. Ich sagte nichts dich zu beleidigen. Aber schweigen kann ich nicht dazu. Karls ungewöhnliche Aufmerksamkeit für dich beunruhigt mich.

Adelheid. Und mein Betragen?

Weislingen. Du bist ein Weib. Ihr haßt keinen, der euch hofiert.

Adelheid. Aber ihr?

Weislingen. Er frißt mir am Herzen, der fürchterliche Gedanke!
Adelheid!

Adelheid. Kann ich deine Torheit kurieren?

Weislingen. Wenn du wolltest! Du könntest dich vom Hof entfernen.

Adelheid. Sage Mittel und Art. Bist du nicht bei Hofe? Soll ich dich lassen und meine Freunde, um auf meinem Schloß mich mit den Uhus zu unterhalten? Nein, Weislingen, daraus wird nichts. Beruhige dich, du weißt, wie ich dich liebe.

Weislingen. Der heilige Anker in diesem Sturm, solang der Strick nicht reißt. (Ab.)

Adelheid. Fängst du's so an! Das fehlte noch. Die Unternehmungen meines Busens sind zu groß, als daß du ihnen im Wege stehen solltest. Karl! Großer trefflicher Mann, und Kaiser dereinst! Und sollte er der einzige sein unter den Männern, dem der Besitz meiner Gunst nicht schmeichelte? Weislingen, denke nicht mich zu hindern, sonst mußt du in den Boden, mein Weg geht über dich hin.

(Franz kommt mit einem Brief.)

Franz. Hier, gnädige Frau.

Adelheid. Gab dir Karl ihn selbst?

Franz. Ja.

Adelheid. Was hast du? Du siehst so kummervoll.

Franz. Es ist Euer Wille, daß ich mich totschmachten soll; in den
Jahren der Hoffnung macht Ihr mich verzweifeln.

Adelheid. Er dauert mich—und wie wenig kostet's mich, ihn glücklich zu machen! Sei gutes Muts, Junge. Ich fühle deine Lieb und Treu, und werde nie unerkenntlich sein.

Franz (beklemmt). Wenn Ihr das fähig wärt, ich müßte vergehn. Mein
Gott, ich habe keinen Blutstropfen in mir, der nicht Euer wäre, keinen
Sinn, als Euch zu lieben und zu tun, was Euch gefällt!

Adelheid. Lieber Junge!

Franz. Ihr schmeichelt mir. (In Tränen ausbrechend.) Wenn diese Ergebenheit nichts mehr verdient, als andere sich vorgezogen zu sehn, als Eure Gedanken alle nach dem Karl gerichtet zu sehn-Adelheid. Du weißt nicht, was du willst, noch weniger, was du redst.

Franz (vor Verdruß und Zorn mit dem Fuß stampfend). Ich will auch nicht mehr. Will nicht mehr den Unterhändler abgeben.

Adelheid. Franz! Du vergißt dich.

Franz. Mich aufzuopfern! Meinen lieben Herrn!

Adelheid. Geh mir aus dem Gesicht.

Franz. Gnädige Frau!

Adelheid. Geh, entdecke deinem lieben Herrn mein Geheimnis. Ich war die Närrin, dich für was zu halten, das du nicht bist.

Franz. Liebe gnädige Frau, Ihr wißt, daß ich Euch liebe.

Adelheid. Und du warst mein Freund, meinem Herzen so nahe. Geh, verrat mich.

Franz. Eher wollt ich mir das Herz aus dem Leibe reißen! Verzeiht mir, gnädige Frau. Mein Herz ist zu voll, meine Sinnen halten's nicht aus.

Adelheid. Lieber warmer Junge! (Faßt ihn bei den Händen, zieht ihn zu sich, und ihre Küsse begegnen einander; er fällt ihr weinend um den Hals.)

Adelheid. Laß mich!

Franz (erstickend in Tränen an ihrem Hals). Gott! Gott!

Adelheid. Laß mich, die Mauern sind Verräter. Laß mich. (Macht sich los.) Wanke nicht von deiner Lieb und Treu, und der schönste Lohn soll dir werden. (Ab.)

Franz. Der schönste Lohn! Nur bis dahin laß mich leben! Ich wollte meinen Vater ermorden, der mir diesen Platz streitig machte.

Jagsthausen

Götz an einem Tisch. Elisabeth bei ihm mit der Arbeit; es steht ein
Licht auf dem Tisch und Schreibzeug.

Götz. Der Müßiggang will mir gar nicht schmecken, und meine Beschränkung wird mir von Tag zu Tag enger; ich wollt, ich könnt schlafen, oder mir nur einbilden, die Ruhe sei was Angenehmes.

Elisabeth. So schreib doch deine Geschichte aus, die du angefangen hast. Gib deinen Freunden ein Zeugnis in die Hand, deine Feinde zu beschämen; verschaff einer edlen Nachkommenschaft die Freude, dich nicht zu verkennen.

Götz. Ach! Schreiben ist geschäftiger Müßiggang, es kommt mir sauer an. Indem ich schreibe, was ich getan, ärger ich mich über den Verlust der Zeit, in der ich etwas tun könnte.

Elisabeth (nimmt die Schrift). Sei nicht wunderlich. Du bist eben an deiner ersten Gefangenschaft in Heilbronn.

Götz. Das war mir von jeher ein fataler Ort.

Elisabeth (liest). "Da waren selbst einige von den Bündischen, die zu mir sagten: ich habe törig getan, mich meinen ärgsten Feinden zu stellen, da ich doch vermuten konnte, sie würden nicht glimpflich mit mir umgehn; da antwortet ich:" Nun, was antwortetest du? Schreibe weiter.

Götz. Ich sagte: "Setz ich so oft meine Haut an anderer Gut und Geld, sollt ich sie nicht an mein Wort setzen?"

Elisabeth. Diesen Ruf hast, du.

Götz. Den sollen sie mir nicht nehmen! Sie haben mir alles genommen, Gut, Freiheit-Elisabeth. Es fällt in die Zeiten, wie ich die von Miltenberg und Singlingen in der Wirtsstube fand, die mich nicht kannten. Da hatt' ich eine Freude, als wenn ich einen Sohn geboren hätte. Sie rühmten dich untereinander und sagten: "Er ist das Muster eines Ritters, tapfer und edel in seiner Freiheit" und gelassen und treu im Unglück."

Götz. Sie sollen mir einen stellen, dem ich mein Wort gebrochen! Und Gott weiß, daß ich mehr geschwitzt hab, meinem Nächsten zu dienen, als mir, daß ich um den Namen eines tapfern und treuen Ritters gearbeitet habe, nicht um hohe Reichtümer und Rang zu gewinnen. Und Gott sei Dank, worum ich warb, ist mir worden.

(Lerse. Georg mit Wildbret.)

Götz. Glück zu, brave Jäger!

Georg. Das sind wir aus braven Reitern geworden. Aus Stiefeln machen sich leicht Pantoffeln.

Lerse. Die Jagd ist doch immer was, und eine Art von Krieg.

Georg. Wenn man nur hierzulande nicht immer mit Reichsknechten zu tun hätte. Wißt Ihr, gnädiger Herr, wie Ihr uns prophezeitet: wenn sich die Welt umkehrte, würden wir Jäger werden. Da sind wir's ohne das.

Götz. Es kommt auf eins hinaus, wir sind aus unserm Kreise gerückt.

Georg. Es sind bedenkliche Zeiten. Schon seit acht Tagen läßt sich ein fürchterlicher Komet sehen, und ganz Deutschland ist in Angst, es bedeute den Tod des Kaisers, der sehr krank ist.

Götz. Sehr krank! Unsere Bahn geht zu Ende.

Lerse. Und hier in der Nähe gibt's noch schrecklichere Veränderungen.
Die Bauern haben einen entsetzlichen Aufstand erregt.

Götz. Wo?

Lerse. Im Herzen von Schwaben. Sie sengen, brennen und morden. Ich fürchte, sie verheeren das ganze Land.

Georg. Einen fürchterlichen Krieg gibt's. Es sind schon an die hundert Ortschaften aufgestanden, und täglich mehr. Der Sturmwind neulich hat ganze Wälder ausgerissen, und kurz darauf hat man in der Gegend, wo der Aufstand begonnen, zwei feurige Schwerter kreuzweis in der Luft gesehn.

Götz. Da leiden von meinen guten Herrn und Freunden gewiß unschuldig mit!

Georg. Schade, daß wir nicht reiten dürfen!

Fünfter Akt

V. Akt, Szene 1

Bauernkrieg. Tumult in einem Dorf und Plünderung

Weiber und Alte mit Kindern und Gepäcke. Flucht.

Alter. Fort! Fort! daß wir den Mordhunden entgehen.

Weib. Heiliger Gott, wie blutrot der Himmel ist, die untergehende
Sonne blutrot!

Mutter. Das bedeut Feuer.

Weib. Mein Mann! Mein Mann!

Alter. Fort! Fort! In Wald!

(Ziehen vorbei.—Link.)

Link. Was sich widersetzt, niedergestochen! Das Dorf ist unser. Daß von Früchten nichts umkommt, nichts zurückbleibt. Plündert rein aus und schnell! Wir zünden gleich an.

(Metzler vom Hügel heruntergelaufen.)

Metzler. Wie geht's Euch, Link?

Link. Drunter und drüber, siehst du, du kommst zum Kehraus. Woher?

Metzler. Von Weinsberg. Da war ein Fest.

Link. Wie?

Metzler. Wir haben sie zusammengestochen, daß eine Lust war.

Link. Wen alles?

Metzler. Dietrich von Weiler tanzte vor. Der Fratz! Wir waren mit hellem wütigem Hauf herum, und er oben auf'm Kirchturn wollt gütlich mit uns handeln. Paff! Schoß ihn einer vorn Kopf. Wir hinauf wie Wetter, und zum Fenster herunter mit dem Kerl.

Link. Ah!

Metzler (zu den Bauern). Ihr Hund', soll ich euch Bein' machen! Wie sie zaudern und trenteln, die Esel.

Link. Brennt an! sie mögen drin braten! Fort! Fahrt zu, ihr
Schlingel!

Metzler. Darnach führten wir heraus den Helfenstein, den Eltershofen, an die dreizehn von Adel, zusammen auf achtzig. Herausgeführt auf die Ebne gegen Heilbronn. Das war ein Jubilieren und ein Tumultuieren von den Unsrigen, wie die lange Reih arme reiche Sünder daherzog, einander anstarrten, und Erd und Himmel! Umringt waren sie, ehe sie sich's versahen, und alle mit Spießen niedergestochen.

Link. Daß ich nicht dabei war!

Metzler. Hab mein Tag so kein Gaudium gehabt.

Link. Fahrt zu! Heraus!

Bauer. Alles ist leer.

Link. So brennt an allen Ecken.

Metzler. Wird ein hübsch Feuerchen geben. Siehst du, wie die Kerls übereinanderpurzelten und quiekten wie die Frösche! Es lief mir so warm übers Herz wie ein Glas Branntwein! Da war ein Rixinger, wenn der Kerl sonst auf die Jagd ritt, mit dem Federbusch und weiten Naslöchern, und uns vor sich hertrieb mit den Hunden und wie die Hunde. Ich hatt' ihn die Zeit nicht gesehen, sein Fratzengesicht fiel mir recht auf. Hasch! den Spieß ihm zwischen die Rippen, da lag er, streckt' alle vier über seine Gesellen. Wie die Hasen beim Treibjagen zuckten die Kerls übereinander.

Link. Raucht schon brav.

Metzler. Dort hinten brennt's. Laß uns mit der Beute gelassen zu dem großen Haufen ziehen.

Link. Wo hält er?

Metzler. Von Heilbronn hieher zu. Sie sind um einen Hauptmann verlegen, vor dem alles Volk Respekt hätt'. Denn wir sind doch nur ihresgleichen, das fühlen sie und werden schwürig.

Link. Wen meinen sie?

Metzler. Max Stumpf oder Götz von Berlichingen.

Link. Das wär gut, gäb auch der Sache einen Schein, wenn's der Götz tät; er hat immer für einen rechtschaffnen Ritter gegolten. Auf! Auf! wir ziehen nach Heilbronn zu! Ruft's herum.

Metzler. Das Feuer leucht uns noch eine gute Strecke. Hast du den großen Kometen gesehen?

Link. Ja. Das ist ein grausam erschrecklich Zeichen! Wenn wir die Nacht durch ziehen, können wir ihn recht sehen. Er geht gegen eins auf.

Metzler. Und bleibt nur fünf Viertelstunden. Wie ein gebogner Arm mit einem Schwert sieht er aus, so blutgelbrot.

Link. Hast du die drei Stern gesehen an des Schwerts Spitze und
Seite?

Metzler. Und der breite wolkenfärbige Streif, mit tausend und tausend
Striemen wie Spieß', und dazwischen wie kleine Schwerter.

Link. Mir hat's gegraust. Wie das alles so bleichrot, und darunter viel feurige helle Flamme, und dazwischen die grausamen Gesichter mit rauchen Häuptern und Bärten!

Metzler. Hast du die auch gesehen? Und das zwitzert alles so durcheinander, als läg's in einem blutigen Meere, und arbeitet durcheinander, daß einem die Sinne vergehn!

Link. Auf! Auf! (Ab.)

Feld

Man sieht in der Ferne zwei Dörfer brennen und ein Kloster.

Kohl. Wild. Max Stumpf. Haufen.

Max Stumpf. Ihr könnt nicht verlangen, daß ich euer Hauptmann sein soll. Für mich und euch wär's nichts nütze. Ich bin Pfalzgräfischer Diener; wie sollt ich gegen meinen Herrn führen? Ihr würdet immer wähnen, ich rät nicht von Herzen.

Kohl. Wußten wohl, du würdest Entschuldigung finden.

(Götz, Lerse, Georg kommen.)

Götz. Was wollt ihr mit mir?

Kohl. Ihr sollt unser Hauptmann sein.

Götz. Soll ich mein ritterlich Wort dem Kaiser brechen und aus meinem
Bann gehen?

Wild. Das ist keine Entschuldigung.

Götz. Und wenn ich ganz frei wäre, und ihr wollt handeln wie bei Weinsberg an den Edeln und Herrn, und so forthausen, wie rings herum das Land brennt und blutet, und ich sollt euch behülflich sein zu euerm schändlichen rasenden Wesen—eher sollt ihr mich totschlagen wie einen wütigen Hund, als daß ich euer Haupt würde!

Kohl. Wäre das nicht geschehen, es geschähe vielleicht nimmermehr.

Stumpf. Das war eben das Unglück, daß sie keinen Führer hatten, den sie geehrt, und der ihrer Wut Einhalt tun können. Nimm die Hauptmannschaft an, ich bitte dich, Götz. Die Fürsten werden dir Dank wissen, ganz Deutschland. Es wird zum Besten und Frommen aller sein. Menschen und Länder werden geschont werden.

Götz. Warum übernimmst du's nicht?

Stumpf. Ich hab mich von ihnen losgesagt.

Kohl. Wir haben nicht Sattelhenkens Zeit, und langer unnötiger
Diskurse. Kurz und gut. Götz, sei unser Hauptmann, oder sieh zu
deinem Schloß und deiner Haut. Und hiermit zwei Stunden Bedenkzeit.
Bewacht ihn.

Götz. Was braucht's das! Ich bin so gut entschlossen—jetzt als darnach. Warum seid ihr ausgezogen? Eure Rechte und Freiheiten wiederzuerlangen? Was wütet ihr und verderbt das Land! Wollt ihr abstehen von allen übeltaten und handeln als wackre Leute, die wissen, was sie wollen, so will ich euch behülflich sein zu euern Forderungen und auf acht Tag euer Hauptmann sein.

Wild. Was geschehen ist, ist in der ersten Hitz geschehen, und braucht's deiner nicht, uns künftig zu hindern.

Kohl. Auf ein Vierteljahr wenigstens mußt du uns zusagen.

Stumpf. Macht vier Wochen, damit könnt ihr beide zufrieden sein.

Götz. Meinetwegen.

Kohl. Eure Hand!

Götz. Und gelobt mir, den Vertrag, den ihr mit mir gemacht, schriftlich an alle Haufen zu senden, ihm bei Strafe streng nachzukommen.

Wild. Nun ja! Soll geschehen.

Götz. So verbind ich mich euch auf vier Wochen.

Stumpf. Glück zu! Was du tust, schon unsern gnädigen Herrn den
Pfalzgrafen.

Kohl (leise). Bewacht ihn. Daß niemand mit ihm rede außer eurer
Gegenwart.

Götz. Lerse! Kehr zu meiner Frau. Steh ihr bei. Sie soll bald
Nachricht von mir haben.

(Götz, Stumpf, Georg, Lerse, einige Bauern ab.—Metzler, Link kommen.)

Metzler. Was hören wir von einem Vertrag? Was soll der Vertrag?

Link. Es ist schändlich, so einen Vertrag einzugehen.

Kohl. Wir wissen so gut, was wir wollen, als ihr, und haben zu tun und zu lassen.

Wild. Das Rasen und Brennen und Morden mußte doch einmal aufhören, heut oder morgen! so haben wir noch einen braven Hauptmann dazu gewonnen.

Metzler. Was aufhören! Du Verräter! Warum sind wir da? Uns an unsern Feinden zu rächen, uns emporzuhelfen!—Das hat euch ein Fürstenknecht geraten.

Kohl. Komm, Wild, er ist wie ein Vieh. (Ab.)

Metzler. Geht nur! Wird euch kein Haufen zustehn. Die Schurken!
Link, wir wollen die andern aufhetzen, Miltenberg dort drüben anzünden,
und wenn's Händel setzt wegen des Vertrags, schlagen wir den
Verträgern zusammen die Köpf ab.

Link. Wir haben doch den großen Haufen auf unsrer Seite.

Berg und Tal. Eine Mühle in der Tiefe

Ein Trupp Reiter. Weislingen kommt aus der Mühle mit Franzen und einem Boten.

Weislingen. Mein Pferd!—Ihr habt's den andern Herrn auch angesagt?

Bote. Wenigstens sieben Fähnlein werden mit Euch eintreffen, im Wald hinter Miltenberg. Die Bauern ziehen unten herum. Überall sind Boten ausgeschickt, der ganze Bund wird in kurzem zusammen sein. Fehlen kann's nicht; man sagt, es sei Zwist unter ihnen.

Weislingen. Desto besser!—Franz!

Franz. Gnädiger Herr?

Weislingen. Richt es pünktlich aus. Ich bind es dir auf deine Seele. Gib ihr den Brief. Sie soll vom Hof auf mein Schloß! Sogleich! Du sollst sie abreisen sehn, und mir's dann melden.

Franz. Soll geschehen, wie Ihr befehlt.

Weislingen. Sag ihr, sie soll wollen. (Zum Boten.) Führt uns nun den nächsten und besten Weg.

Bote. Wir müssen umziehen. Die Wasser sind von den entsetzlichen
Regen alle ausgetreten.

Jagsthausen

Elisabeth. Lerse.

Lerse. Tröstet Euch, gnädige Frau!

Elisabeth. Ach, Lerse, die Tränen stunden ihm in den Augen, wie er
Abschied von mir nahm. Es ist grausam, grausam!

Lerse. Er wird zurückkehren.

Elisabeth. Es ist nicht das. Wenn er auszog, rühmlichen Sieg zu erwerben, da war mir's nicht weh ums Herz. Ich freute mich auf seine Rückkunft, vor der mir jetzt bang ist.

Lerse. Ein so edler Mann-Elisabeth. Nenn ihn nicht so, das macht neu Elend. Die Bösewichter! Sie drohten, ihn zu ermorden, und sein Schloß anzuzünden.—Wenn er wiederkommen wird—ich seh ihn finster, finster. Seine Feinde werden lügenhafte Klagartikel schmieden, und er wird nicht sagen können: Nein!

Lerse. Er wird und kann.

Elisabeth. Er hat seinen Bann gebrochen. Sag Nein!

Lerse. Nein! Er ward gezwungen; wo ist der Grund, ihn zu verdammen?

Elisabeth. Die Bosheit sucht keine Gründe, nur Ursachen. Er hat sich zu Rebellen, Missetätern, Mördern gesellt, ist an ihrer Spitze gezogen. Sage Nein!

Lerse. Laßt ab, Euch zu quälen und mich. Haben sie ihm nicht feierlich zugesagt, keine Tathandlungen mehr zu unternehmen, wie die bei Weinsberg? Hört ich sie nicht selbst halbreuig sagen: Wenn's nicht geschehen wär, geschäh's vielleicht nie? Müßten nicht Fürsten und Herrn ihm Dank wissen, wenn er freiwillig Führer eines unbändigen Volks geworden wäre, um ihrer Raserei Einhalt zu tun und so viel Menschen und Besitztümer zu schonen?

Elisabeth. Du bist ein liebevoller Advokat.—Wenn sie ihn gefangennähmen, als Rebell behandelten, und sein graues Haupt—Lerse, ich möchte von Sinnen kommen.

Lerse. Sende ihrem Körper Schlaf, lieber Vater der Menschen, wenn du ihrer Seele keinen Trost geben willst!

Elisabeth. Georg hat versprochen, Nachricht zu bringen. Er wird auch nicht dürfen, wie er will. Sie sind ärger als gefangen. Ich weiß, man bewacht sie wie Feinde. Der gute Georg! Er wollte nicht von seinem Herrn weichen.

Lerse. Das Herz blutete mir, wie er mich von sich schickte. Wenn Ihr nicht meiner Hülfe bedürftet, alle Gefahren des schmählichsten Todes sollten mich nicht von ihm getrennt haben.

Elisabeth. Ich weiß nicht, wo Sickingen ist. Wenn ich nur Marien einen Boten schicken könnte.

Lerse. Schreibt nur, ich will dafür sorgen. (Ab.)

Bei einem Dorf

Götz. Georg.

Götz. Geschwind zu Pferde, Georg! Ich sehe Miltenberg brennen. Halten sie so den Vertrag? Reit hin, sag ihnen die Meinung. Die Mordbrenner! Ich sage mich von ihnen los. Sie sollen einen Zigeuner zum Hauptmann machen, nicht mich. Geschwind, Georg. (Georg ab.) Wollt, ich wäre tausend Meilen davon, und läg im tiefsten Turn, der in der Türkei steht. Könnt ich mit Ehren von ihnen kommen! Ich fahr ihnen alle Tag durch den Sinn, sag ihnen die bittersten Wahrheiten, daß sie mein müde werden und mich erlassen sollen.

(Ein Unbekannter.)

Unbekannter. Gott grüß Euch, sehr edler Herr.

Götz. Gott dank Euch. Was bringt Ihr? Euern Namen?

Unbekannter. Der tut nichts zur Sache. Ich komme, Euch zu sagen, daß Euer Kopf in Gefahr ist. Die Anführer sind müde, sich von Euch so harte Worte geben zu lassen, haben beschlossen, Euch aus dem Weg zu räumen. Mäßigt Euch oder seht zu entwischen, und Gott geleit Euch. (Ab.)

Götz. Auf diese Art dein Leben zu lassen, Götz, und so zu enden! Es sei drum! So ist mein Tod der Welt das sicherste Zeichen, daß ich nichts Gemeines mit den Hunden gehabt habe.

(Einige Bauern.)

Erster Bauer. Herr, Herr! Sie sind geschlagen, sie sind gefangen.

Götz. Wer?

Zweiter Bauer. Die Miltenberg verbrannt haben. Es zog sich ein
Bündischer Trupp hinter dem Berg hervor und überfiel sie auf einmal.

Götz. Sie erwartet ihr Lohn.—O Georg! Georg!—Sie haben ihn mit den
Bösewichtern gefangen—Mein Georg! Mein Georg!-(Anführer kommen.)

Link. Auf, Herr Hauptmann, auf! Es ist nicht Säumens Zeit. Der
Feind ist in der Nähe und mächtig.

Götz. Wer verbrannte Miltenberg?

Metzler. Wenn Ihr Umstände machen wollt, so wird man Euch weisen, wie man keine macht.

Kohl. Sorgt für unsere Haut und Eure. Auf! Auf!

Götz (zu Metzler). Drohst du mir! Du Nichtswürdiger! Glaubst du, daß du mir fürchterlicher bist, weil des Grafen von Helfenstein Blut an deinen Kleidern klebt?

Metzler. Berlichingen!

Götz. Du darfst meinen Namen nennen, und meine Kinder werden sich dessen nicht schämen.

Metzler. Mit dir feigem Kerl! Fürstendiener!

Götz (haut ihn über den Kopf, daß er stürzt. Die andern treten dazwischen).

Kohl. Ihr seid rasend. Der Feind bricht auf allen Seiten 'rein, und ihr hadert!

Link. Auf! Auf!

(Tumult und Schlacht.—Weislingen. Reiter.)

Weislingen. Nach! Nach! Sie fliehen. Laßt euch Regen und Nacht nicht abhalten. Götz ist unter ihnen, hör ich. Wendet Fleiß an, daß ihr ihn erwischt. Er ist schwer verwundet, sagen die Unsrigen. (Die Reiter ab.) Und wenn ich dich habe!—Es ist noch Gnade, wenn wir heimlich im Gefängnis dein Todesurteil vollstrecken.—So verlischt er vor dem Andenken der Menschen, und du kannst freier atmen, törichtes Herz. (Ab.)

Nacht, im wilden Wald. Zigeunerlager

Zigeunermutter am Feuer.

Mutter. Flick das Strohdach über der Grube, Tochter, gibt hint nacht noch Regen genug.

(Knab kommt.)

Knab. Ein Hamster, Mutter. Da! Zwei Feldmäus.

Mutter. Will sie dir abziehen und braten, und sollst eine Kapp haben von den Fellchen.—Du blutst?

Knab. Hamster hat mich bissen.

Mutter. Hol mir dürr Holz, daß das Feuer loh brennt wenn dein Vater kommt, wird naß sein durch und durch.

(Andre Zigeunerin, ein Kind auf dem Rücken.)

Erste Zigeunerin. Hast du brav geheischen?

Zweite Zigeunerin. Wenig genug. Das Land ist voll Tumult herum, daß man seins Lebens nicht sicher ist. Brennen zwei Dörfer lichterloh.

Erste Zigeunerin. Ist das dort drunten Brand, der Schein? Seh ihm schon lang zu. Man ist die Feuerzeichen am Himmel zeither so gewohnt worden.

(Zigeunerhauptmann, drei Gesellen kommen.)

Hauptmann. Hört ihr den wilden Jäger?

Erster Zigeuner. Er zieht grad über uns hin.

Hauptmann. Wie die Hunde bellen! Wau! Wau!

Zweiter Zigeuner. Die Peitschen knallen.

Dritter Zigeuner. Die Jäger jauchzen holla ho!

Mutter. Bringt ja des Teufels sein Gepäck!

Hauptmann. Haben im Trüben gefischt. Die Bauern rauben selbst, ist's uns wohl vergönnt.

Zweite Zigeunerin. Was hast du, Wolf?

Wolf. Einen Hasen, da, und einen Hahn; ein Bratspieß; ein Bündel
Leinwand; drei Kochlöffel und ein Pferdzaum.

Sticks. Ein wullen Deck hab ich, ein Paar Stiefeln, und Zunder und
Schwefel.

Mutter. Ist alles pudelnaß, wollen's trocknen, gebt her.

Hauptmann. Horch, ein Pferd! Geht! Seht, was ist. (Götz zu Pferd.)

Götz. Gott sei Dank! Dort seh ich Feuer, sind Zigeuner. Meine Wunden verbluten, die Feinde hinterher. Heiliger Gott, du endigst gräßlich mit mir!

Hauptmann. Ist's Friede daß du kommst?

Götz. Ich flehe Hülfe von euch. Meine Wunden ermatten mich. Helft mir vom Pferd!

Hauptmann. Helf ihm! Ein edler Mann, an Gestalt und Wort.

Wolf (leise). Es ist Götz von Berlichingen.

Hauptmann. Seid willkommen! Alles ist Euer, was wir haben.

Götz. Dank Euch.

Hauptmann. Kommt in mein Zelt.

V. Akt, Szene 2

Hauptmanns Zelt

Hauptmann. Götz.

Hauptmann. Ruft der Mutter, sie soll Blutwurzel bringen und Pflaster.

Götz (legt den Harnisch ab).

Hauptmann. Hier ist mein Feiertagswams.

Götz. Gott lohn's.

(Mutter verbindt ihn.)

Hauptmann. Ist mir herzlich lieb, Euch zu haben.

Götz. Kennt Ihr mich?

Hauptmann. Wer sollte Euch nicht kennen! Götz, unser Leben und Blut lassen wir für Euch.

(Schricks.)

Schricks. Kommen durch den Wald Reiter. Sind Bündische.

Hauptmann. Eure Verfolger! Sie sollen nit bis zu Euch kommen! Auf, Schricks! Biete den andern! Wir kennen die Schliche besser als sie, wir schießen sie nieder, eh sie uns gewahr werden.

Götz (allein). O Kaiser! Kaiser! Räuber beschützen deine Kinder.
(Man hört scharf schießen.) Die wilden Kerls, starr und treu!

(Zigeunerin.)

Zigeunerin. Rettet Euch! Die Feinde überwältigen.

Götz. Wo ist mein Pferd?

Zigeunerin. Hierbei.

Götz (gürtet sich und sitzt auf ohne Harnisch). Zum letztenmal sollen sie meinen Arm fühlen. Ich bin so schwach noch nicht. (Ab.)

Zigeunerin. Er sprengt zu den Unsrigen.

(Flucht.)

Wolf. Fort, fort! Alles verloren. Unser Hauptmann erschossen. Götz gefangen.

(Geheul der Weiber und Flucht.)

Adelheidens Schlafzimmer

Adelheid mit einem Brief.

Adelheid. Er, oder ich! Der übermütige! Mir drohen!—Wir wollen dir zuvorkommen. Was schleicht durch den Saal? (Es klopft.) Wer ist draußen?

(Franz leise.)

Franz. Macht mir auf, gnädige Frau.

Adelheid. Franz! Er verdient wohl, daß ich ihm aufmache. (Läßt ihn ein.)

Franz (fällt ihr um den Hals). Liebe gnädige Frau.

Adelheid. Unverschämter! Wenn dich jemand gehört hätte.

Franz. O es schläft alles, alles!

Adelheid. Was willst du?

Franz. Mich läßt's nicht ruhen. Die Drohungen meines Herrn, Euer
Schicksal, mein Herz.

Adelheid. Er war sehr zornig, als du Abschied nahmst?

Franz. Als ich ihn nie gesehen. Auf ihre Güter soll sie, sagt' er, sie soll wollen.

Adelheid. Und wir folgen?

Franz. Ich weiß nichts, gnädige Frau.

Adelheid. Betrogener törichter Junge, du siehst nicht, wo das hinaus will. Hier weiß er mich in Sicherheit. Denn lange steht's ihm schon nach meiner Freiheit. Er will mich auf seine Güter. Dort hat er Gewalt, mich zu behandeln, wie sein Haß ihm eingibt.

Franz. Er soll nicht!

Adelheid. Wirst du ihn hindern?

Franz. Er soll nicht!

Adelheid. Ich seh mein ganzes Elend voraus. Von seinem Schloß wird er mich mit Gewalt reißen, wird mich in ein Kloster sperren.

Franz. Hölle und Tod!

Adelheid. Wirst du mich retten?

Franz. Eh alles! alles!

Adelheid (die weinend ihn umhalst). Franz, ach uns zu retten!

Franz. Er soll nieder, ich will ihm den Fuß auf den Nacken setzen.

Adelheid. Keine Wut! Du sollst einen Brief an ihn haben, voll Demut, daß ich gehorche. Und dieses Fläschchen gieß ihm unter das Getränk.

Franz. Gebt. Ihr sollt frei sein!

Adelheid. Frei! Wenn du nicht mehr zitternd auf deinen Zehen zu mir schleichen wirst—nicht mehr ich ängstlich zu dir sage: "Brich auf, Franz, der Morgen kommt."

Heilbronn, vorm Turn

Elisabeth. Lerse.

Lerse. Gott nehm das Elend von Euch, gnädige Frau. Marie ist hier.

Elisabeth. Gott sei Dank! Lerse, wir sind in entsetzliches Elend versunken. Da ist's nun, wie mir alles ahnete! Gefangen, als Meuter, Missetäter in den tiefsten Turn geworfen

Lerse. Ich weiß alles.

Elisabeth. Nichts, nichts weißt du, der Jammer ist zu groß! Sein Alter, seine Wunden, ein schleichend Fieber und, mehr als alles das, die Finsternis seiner Seele, daß es so mit ihm enden soll.

Lerse. Auch, und daß der Weislingen Kommissar ist.

Elisabeth. Weislingen?

Lerse. Man hat mit unerhörten Exekutionen verfahren. Metzler ist lebendig verbrannt, zu Hunderten gerädert, gespießt, geköpft, geviertelt. Das Land umher gleicht einer Metzge, wo Menschenfleisch wohlfeil ist.

Elisabeth. Weislingen Kommissar! O Gott! Ein Strahl von Hoffnung. Marie soll mir zu ihm, er kann ihr nichts abschlagen. Er hatte immer ein weiches Herz, und wenn er sie sehen wird, die er so liebte, die so elend durch ihn ist—Wo ist sie?

Lerse. Noch im Wirtshaus.

Elisabeth. Führe mich zu ihr. Sie muß gleich fort. Ich fürchte alles.

Weislingens Schloß

Weislingen.

Weislingen. Ich bin so krank, so schwach. Alle meine Gebeine sind hohl. Ein elendes Fieber hat das Mark ausgefressen. Keine Ruh und Rast, weder Tag noch Nacht. Im halben Schlummer giftige Träume. Die vorige Nacht begegnete ich Götzen im Wald. Er zog sein Schwert und forderte mich heraus. Ich faßte nach meinem, die Hand versagte mir. Da stieß er's in die Scheide, sah mich verächtlich an und ging hinter mich.—Er ist gefangen, und ich zittre vor ihm. Elender Mensch! Dein Wort hat ihn zum Tode verurteilt, und du bebst vor seiner Traumgestalt wie ein Missetäter!—Und soll er sterben?—Götz! Götz!—Wir Menschen führen uns nicht selbst; bösen Geistern ist Macht über uns gelassen, daß sie ihren höllischen Mutwillen an unserm Verderben üben. (Setzt sich.)—Matt! Matt! Wie sind meine Nägel so blau!—Ein kalter, kalter, verzehrender Schweiß lähmt mir jedes Glied. Es dreht mir alles vorm Gesicht. Könnt ich schlafen. Ach-(Maria tritt auf.)

Weislingen. Jesus Marie!—Laß mir Ruh! Laß mir Ruh!—Die Gestalt fehlte noch! Sie stirbt, Marie stirbt, und zeigt sich mir an.—Verlaß mich, seliger Geist, ich bin elend genug.

Maria. Weislingen, ich bin kein Geist. Ich bin Marie.

Weislingen. Das ist ihre Stimme.

Maria. Ich komme, meines Bruders Leben von dir zu erflehen. Er ist unschuldig, so strafbar er scheint.

Weisling. Still, Marie! Du Engel des Himmels bringst die Qualen der
Hölle mit dir. Rede nicht fort.

Maria. Und mein Bruder soll sterben? Weislingen, es ist entsetzlich, daß ich dir zu sagen brauche: er ist unschuldig; daß ich jammern muß, dich von dem abscheulichsten Morde zurückzuhalten. Deine Seele ist bis in ihre innersten Tiefen von feindseligen Mächten besessen. Das ist Adelbert!

Weislingen. Du siehst, der verzehrende Atem des Todes hat mich angehaucht, meine Kraft sinkt nach dem Grabe. Ich stürbe als ein Elender, und du kommst, mich in Verzweiflung zu stürzen. Wenn ich reden könnte, dein höchster Haß würde in Mitleid und Jammer zerschmelzen. O Marie! Marie!

Maria. Weislingen, mein Bruder verkranket im Gefängnis. Seine schweren Wunden, sein Alter. Und wenn du fähig wärst, sein graues Haupt—Weislingen, wir würden verzweifeln.

Weislingen. Genug. (Zieht die Schelle.)

(Franz in äußerster Bewegung.)

Franz. Gnädiger Herr.

Weislingen. Die Papiere dort, Franz!

Franz (bringt sie).

Weislingen (reißt ein Paket auf und zeigt Marien ein Papier). Hier ist deines Bruders Todesurteil unterschrieben.

Maria. Gott im Himmel!

Weislingen. Und so zerreiß ich's! Er lebt. Aber kann ich wieder schaffen, was ich zerstört habe? Weine nicht so, Franz! Guter Junge, dir geht mein Elend tief zu Herzen.

Franz (wirft sich vor ihm nieder und faßt seine Knie).

Maria (vor sich). Er ist sehr krank. Sein Anblick zerreißt mir das
Herz. Wie liebt ich ihn! und nun ich ihm nahe, fühl ich, wie lebhaft.

Weislingen. Franz, steh auf und laß das Weinen! Ich kann wieder aufkommen. Hoffnung ist bei den Lebenden.

Franz. Ihr werdet nicht. Ihr müßt sterben.

Weislingen. Ich muß?

Franz (außer sich). Gift! Gift! Von Euerm Weibe!—Ich! Ich!
(Rennt davon.)

Weislingen. Marie, geh ihm nach. Er verzweifelt. (Maria ab.) Gift von meinem Weibe! Weh! Weh! Ich fühl's. Marter und Tod!

Maria (inwendig). Hülfe! Hülfe!

Weislingen (will aufstehn). Gott, vermag ich das nicht!

Maria (kommt). Er ist hin. Zum Saalfenster hinaus stürzt' er wütend in den Main hinunter.

Weislingen. Ihm ist wohl.—Dein Bruder ist außer Gefahr. Die übrigen
Kommissarien, Seckendorf besonders, sind seine Freunde. Ritterlich
Gefängnis werden sie ihm auf sein Wort gleich gewähren. Leb wohl,
Maria, und geh.

Maria. Ich will bei dir bleiben, armer Verlaßner.

Weislingen. Wohl verlassen und arm! Du bist ein furchtbarer Rächer,
Gott!—Mein Weib-Maria. Entschlage dich dieser Gedanken. Kehre dein
Herz zu dem Barmherzigen.

Weislingen. Geh, liebe Seele, überlaß mich meinem Elend.—Entsetzlich!
Auch deine Gegenwart, Marie, der letzte Trost, ist Qual.

Maria (vor sich). Stärke mich, o Gott! Meine Seele erliegt mit der seinigen.

Weislingen. Weh! Weh! Gift von meinem Weibe!—Mein Franz verführt durch die Abscheuliche! Wie sie wartet, horcht auf den Boten, der ihr die Nachricht bringe: er ist tot. Und du, Marie! Marie, warum bist du gekommen, daß du jede schlafende Erinnerung meiner Sünden wecktest! Verlaß mich! Verlaß mich, daß ich sterbe.

Maria. Laß mich bleiben. Du bist allein. Denk, ich sei deine Wärterin. Vergiß alles. Vergesse dir Gott so alles, wie ich dir alles vergesse.

Weislingen. Du Seele voll Liebe, bete für mich, bete für mich! Mein
Herz ist verschlossen.

Maria. Er wird sich deiner erbarmen.—Du bist matt.

Weislingen. Ich sterbe, sterbe und kann nicht ersterben. Und in dem fürchterlichen Streit des Lebens und Todes sind die Qualen der Hölle.

Maria. Erbarmer, erbarme dich seiner! Nur einen Blick deiner Liebe an sein Herz, daß es sich zum Trost öffne, und sein Geist Hoffnung, Lebenshoffnung in den Tod hinüberbringe!

In einem finstern engen Gewölbe

Die Richter des heimlichen Gerichts. Alle vermummt.

ältester. Richter des heimlichen Gerichts, schwurt auf Strang und Schwert, unsträflich zu sein, zu richten im Verborgnen, zu strafen im Verborgnen Gott gleich! Sind eure Herzen rein und eure Hände, hebt die Arme empor, ruft über die Missetäter: "Wehe! Wehe!"

Alle. Wehe! Wehe!

ältester. Rufer, beginne das Gericht!

Rufer. Ich, Rufer, rufe die Klag gegen den Missetäter. Des Herz rein ist, dessen Händ rein sind zu schwören auf Strang und Schwert, der klage bei Strang und Schwert! klage! klage!

Kläger (tritt vor). Mein Herz ist rein von Missetat, meine Hände von unschuldigem Blut. Verzeih mir Gott böse Gedanken und hemme den Weg zum Willen! Ich hebe meine Hand auf und klage! klage! klage!

ältester. Wen klagst du an?

Kläger. Klage an auf Strang und Schwert Adelheiden von Weislingen. Sie hat Ehebruchs sich schuldig gemacht, ihren Mann vergiftet durch ihren Knaben. Der Knab hat sich selbst gerichtet, der Mann ist tot.

ältester. Schwörst du zu dem Gott der Wahrheit, daß du Wahrheit klagst?

Kläger. Ich schwöre.

ältester. Würd es falsch befunden, beutst du deinen Hals der Strafe des Mords und des Ehebruchs?

Kläger. Ich biete.

ältester. Eure Stimmen.

(Sie reden heimlich zu ihm.)

Kläger. Richter des heimlichen Gerichts, was ist euer Urteil über
Adelheiden von Weislingen, bezüchtigt des Ehebruchs und Mords?

ältester. Sterben soll sie! sterben des bittern doppelten Todes; mit Strang und Dolch büßen doppelt doppelte Missetat. Streckt eure Hände empor, und rufet Weh über sie! Weh! Weh! In die Hände des Rächers.

Alle. Weh! Weh! Weh!

ältester. Rächer! Rächer, tritt auf.

Rächer (tritt vor).

ältester. Faß hier Strang und Schwert, sie zu tilgen von dem Angesicht des Himmels, binnen acht Tage Zeit. Wo du sie findest, nieder mit ihr in Staub!—Richter, die ihr richtet im Verborgenen und strafet im Verborgenen Gott gleich, bewahrt euer Herz vor Missetat und eure Hände vor unschuldigem Blut.

Hof einer Herberge

Maria. Lerse.

Maria. Die Pferde haben genug gerastet. Wir wollen fort, Lerse.

Lerse. Ruht doch bis an Morgen. Die Nacht ist gar zu unfreundlich.

Maria. Lerse, ich habe keine Ruhe, bis ich meinen Bruder gesehen habe.
Laß uns fort. Das Wetter hellt sich aus, wir haben einen schönen
Tag zu gewarten.

Lerse. Wie Ihr befehlt.

Heilbronn, im Turn

Götz. Elisabeth.

Elisabeth. Ich bitte dich, lieber Mann, rede mit mir. Dein Stillschweigen ängstet mich. Du verglühst in dir selbst. Komm, laß uns nach deinen Wunden sehen; sie bessern sich um vieles. In der mutlosen Finsternis erkenn ich dich nicht mehr.

Götz. Suchtest du den Götz? Der ist lang hin. Sie haben mich nach
und nach verstümmelt, meine Hand, meine Freiheit, Güter und guten
Namen. Mein Kopf, was ist an dem?—Was hört Ihr von Georgen? Ist
Lerse nach Georgen?

Elisabeth. Ja, Lieber! Richtet Euch auf, es kann sich vieles wenden.

Götz. Wen Gott niederschlägt, der richtet sich selbst nicht auf. Ich weiß am besten, was auf meinen Schultern liegt. Unglück bin ich gewohnt zu dulden. Und jetzt ist's nicht Weislingen allein, nicht die Bauern allein, nicht der Tod des Kaisers und meine Wunden—Es ist alles zusammen. Meine Stunde ist kommen. Ich hoffte, sie sollte sein wie mein Leben. Sein Wille geschehe.

Elisabeth. Willt du nicht was essen?

Götz. Nichts, meine Frau. Sieh, wie die Sonne draußen scheint.

Elisabeth. Ein schöner Frühlingstag.

Götz. Meine Liebe, wenn du den Wächter bereden könntest, mich in sein klein Gärtchen zu lassen auf eine halbe Stunde, daß ich der lieben Sonne genösse, des heitern Himmels und der reinen Luft.

Elisabeth. Gleich! und er wird's wohl tun.

Gärtchen am Turn

Maria. Lerse.

Maria. Geh hinein und sieh, wie's steht.

(Lerse ab.—Elisabeth. Wächter.)

Elisabeth. Gott vergelt Euch die Lieb und Treu an meinem Herrn.
(Wächter ab.) Maria, was bringst du?

Maria. Meines Bruders Sicherheit. Ach, aber mein Herz ist zerrissen.
Weislingen ist tot, vergiftet von seinem Weibe. Mein Mann ist in
Gefahr. Die Fürsten werden ihm zu mächtig, man sagt, er sei
eingeschlossen und belagert.

Elisabeth. Glaubt dem Gerüchte nicht. Und laßt Götzen nichts merken.

Maria. Wie steht's um ihn?

Elisabeth. Ich fürchtete, er würde deine Rückkunft nicht erleben.
Die Hand des Herrn liegt schwer auf ihm. Und Georg ist tot.

Maria. Georg! der goldne Junge!

Elisabeth. Als die Nichtswürdigen Miltenberg verbrannten, sandte ihn sein Herr, ihnen Einhalt zu tun. Da fiel ein Trupp Bündischer auf sie los.—Georg! hätten sie sich alle gehalten wie er, sie hätten alle das gute Gewissen haben müssen. Viel wurden erstochen, und Georg mit: er starb einen Reiterstod.

Maria. Weiß es Götz?

Elisabeth. Wir verbergen's vor ihm. Er fragt mich zehnmal des Tags, und schickt mich zehnmal des Tags zu forschen, was Georg macht. Ich fürchte seinem Herzen diesen letzten Stoß zu geben.

Maria. O Gott, was sind die Hoffnungen dieser Erden!

(Götz. Lerse. Wächter.)

Götz. Allmächtiger Gott! Wie wohl ist's einem unter deinem Himmel!
Wie frei!—Die Bäume treiben Knospen, und alle Welt hofft. Lebt wohl,
meine Lieben; meine Wurzeln sind abgehauen, meine Kraft sinkt nach dem
Grabe.

Elisabeth. Darf ich Lersen nach deinem Sohn ins Kloster schicken, daß du ihn noch einmal siehst und segnest?

Götz. Laß ihn, er ist heiliger als ich, er braucht meinen Segen nicht. —An unsrem Hochzeittag, Elisabeth, ahnte mir's nicht, daß ich so sterben würde.—Mein alter Vater segnete uns, und eine Nachkommenschaft von edeln tapfern Söhnen quoll aus seinem Gebet.—Du hast ihn nicht erhört, und ich bin der Letzte.—Lerse, dein Angesicht freut mich in der Stunde des Todes mehr als im mutigsten Gefecht. Damals führte mein Geist den eurigen; jetzt hältst du mich aufrecht. Ach daß ich Georgen noch einmal sähe, mich an seinem Blick wärmte! —Ihr seht zur Erden und weint—Er ist tot—Georg ist tot.—Stirb, Götz—Du hast dich selbst überlebt, die Edeln überlebt.—Wie starb er?—Ach fingen sie ihn unter den Mordbrennern, und er ist hingerichtet?

Elisabeth. Nein, er wurde bei Miltenberg erstochen. Er wehrte sich wie ein Löw um seine Freiheit.

Götz. Gott sei Dank!—Er war der beste Junge unter der Sonne und tapfer.—Löse meine Seele nun!—Arme Frau! Ich lasse dich in einer verderbten Welt. Lerse, verlaß sie nicht.—Schließt eure Herzen sorgfältiger als eure Tore. Es kommen die Zeiten des Betrugs, es ist ihm Freiheit gegeben. Die Nichtswürdigen werden regieren mit List, und der Edle wird in ihre Netze fallen. Maria, gebe dir Gott deinen Mann wieder. Möge er nicht so tief fallen, als er hoch gestiegen ist! Selbitz starb, und der gute Kaiser, und mein Georg.—Gebt mir einen Trunk Wasser.—Himmlische Luft—Freiheit! Freiheit! (Er stirbt.)

Elisabeth. Nur droben, droben bei dir. Die Welt ist ein Gefängnis.

Maria. Edler Mann! Edler Mann! Wehe dem Jahrhundert, das dich von sich stieß!

Lerse. Wehe der Nachkommenschaft, die dich verkennt!

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Travis McCracken 2024-03-18 Travis McCracken 2024-03-18

After a Century of Searching, Scientists Finally Found A Virtual Magnetic Monopole

Now an international team of scientists from the U.K. and China have found emergent magnetic monopole behavior in a hematite, an iron-oxide component of rust.

While this doesn’t prove whether or not magnetic poles can be truly separated, it could open the door to new data storage and computing technologies.

Magnetic monopoles are a complicated concept with a deceptively simple name. At their most basic, these theoretical elemental particles are exactly what they sound like—magnets with only one pole instead of the usual two. But that simple moniker falls short of conveying the century-long search for this ever-elusive particle.

Usually, when you split a bar magnet in two, the new pieces form new poles and exhibit magnetic field lines the same way as before. In classical physics, it’s impossible to actually create a magnetic monopole, but the revolution of quantum mechanics in the early 20th century began to unravel that long-established assumption. However, nearly a century after English physicist Paul Dirac (who also correctly hypothesized the presence of antimatter) first theorized their existence, scientists still haven’t found magnetic monopoles in the observable universe.

This search for a hypothetical object has instead led some physicists down different exploratory paths to find electromagnetic phenomena that appear to act like monopoles— some kind of virtual magnetic monopole. In a new study published in the journal Nature Materials, scientists from the University of Cambridge, the University of Oxford, and the National University of Singapore captured the first naturally occurring magnetic monopoles emerging from collective electron behavior in flecks of hematite, a type of iron oxide (a.k.a. rust).

“These monopoles are a collective state of many spins that twirl around a singularity rather than a single fixed particle, so they emerge through many-body interactions,” University of Oxford’s Hariom Jani, a co-author of the study, said in a press statement. “The result is a tiny, localized stable particle with diverging magnetic field coming out of it.”

The discovery of this new class of magnetic monopole can be attributed to two ideas. The first is a concept known as “emergence,” which was first popularized by Nobel laureate Philip Anderson in 1972 in an essay titled “More Is Different.” That essay states that, in condensed matter physics, the sum of individual physical pieces could exhibit different properties from its parts.

The second idea involved the study of antiferromagnets with what’s called “diamond quantum magnetometry.” This technique allows for the examination of the spin of a single electron on the tip of a diamond needle, which in turn allows researchers to measure its magnetic field as its impacts (in this case) hematite. Crucially, the technique pulls this off without affecting the behavior of the electron itself.

“The challenge has always been direct imaging of these textures in antiferromagnets due to their weaker magnetic pull,” University of Cambridge’s Anthony Tan said in a press statement. “But now we’re able to do so, with a nice combination of diamonds and rust.”

Using these two techniques, the scientists discovered “hidden patterns of magnetic charges” that included expected dipoles and quadrupoles, but also monopoles. As Scientific American notes, this discovery doesn’t solve the quantum question of whether a magnet’s poles can be separated. But it could lead to the development of next-gen storage techniques, known as racetrack memory or ultra-efficient computing devices.

The next big thing in computing could be powered by the incredibly small quantum whirls of magnetic monopoles.

Travis McCracken 2024-03-13 Travis McCracken 2024-03-13

the New SAT

#newsat

Here’s What It’s Like to Take the New SAT

By Dana GoldsteinMarch 8, 2024

New York Times

Students took a new SAT on Saturday. It's all digital, and the reading and writing sections do away with page-long reading excerpts with eight to 11 questions. Now, there are short passages followed by just one question each.

Try your hand at five sample questions.

1 of 5

The following text is from Bram Stoker’s 1897 novel “Dracula.” The narrator is being driven in a carriage through a remote region at night.

“The baying of the wolves sounded nearer and nearer, as though they were closing round on us from every side. I grew dreadfully afraid, and the horses shared my fear. The driver, however, was not in the least disturbed; he kept turning his head to left and right, but I could not see anything through the darkness.”

As used in the text, what does the word “disturbed” most nearly mean?

Disorganized

Alarmed

Offended

Interrupted

96% of 267,027 readers answered this correctly.

2 of 5

The field of study called affective neuroscience seeks instinctive, physiological causes for feelings such as pleasure or displeasure. Because these sensations are linked to a chemical component (for example, the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain when one receives or expects a reward), they can be said to have a partly physiological basis. These processes have been described in mammals, but Jingnan Huang and his colleagues have recently observed that some behaviors of honeybees (such as foraging) are also motivated by a dopamine-based signaling process.

What choice best describes the main purpose of the text?

It describes an experimental method of measuring the strength of physiological responses in humans.

It illustrates processes by which certain insects can express how they are feeling.

It summarizes a finding suggesting that some mechanisms in the brains of certain insects resemble mechanisms in mammalian brains.

It presents research showing that certain insects and mammals behave similarly when there is a possibility of a reward for their actions.

3 of 5

“An Ideal Husband” is an 1895 play by Oscar Wilde. In the play, which is a satire, Wilde suggests that a character named Lady Gertrude Chiltern is perceived as both extremely virtuous and unforgiving, as is evident when another character says

Which quotation from “An Ideal Husband” most effectively illustrates the claim?

“Lady Chiltern is a woman of the very highest principles, I am glad to say. I am a little too old now, myself, to trouble about setting a good example, but I always admire people who do.”

“Do you know, [Lady Chiltern], I don’t mind your talking morality a bit. Morality is simply the attitude we adopt towards people whom we personally dislike.”

“[Lady Chiltern] does not know what weakness or temptation is. I am of clay like other men. She stands apart as good women do—pitiless in her perfection—cold and stern and without mercy.”

“Lady Chiltern, you are a sensible woman, the most sensible woman in London, the most sensible woman I know.”

4 of 5

Richard Spikes was a prolific African American inventor known for his contributions to automotive engineering. Between 1907 and 1946, he patented many inventions, an automobile turn signal, a safety brake, and — most famously — the first automatic gearshift.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of standard English?

included

includes

including

will include

5 of 5

While researching a topic, a student has taken the following notes:

Planetary scientists classify asteroids based on their composition.
C-type asteroids are composed primarily of carbon.
They account for roughly 75 percent of known asteroids.
S-type asteroids are primarily made up of silicate minerals.
They account for roughly 17 percent of known asteroids.

The student wants to emphasize a difference between C-type and S-type asteroids. Which choice most effectively uses relevant information from the notes to accomplish this goal?

Planetary scientists classify asteroids into types, two of which are the C-type and the S-type.

Planetary scientists consider an asteroid’s composition (such as whether the asteroid is composed mainly of silicate minerals or carbon) when classifying it.

Roughly 17 percent of known asteroids are classified as S-type asteroids; another percentage is classified as C-type asteroids.

C-type asteroids are mainly composed of carbon, whereas S-type asteroids are primarily made up of silicate minerals.

Answers:

In the context of this excerpt from Bram Stoker's "Dracula," the word "disturbed" most nearly means "alarmed." The narrator is describing a tense situation where the baying of wolves is getting closer, inducing fear in both the narrator and the horses. The driver's lack of reaction implies that he is not alarmed by the situation, despite the growing danger indicated by the approaching wolves.

The main purpose of the text is to summarize a finding suggesting that some mechanisms in the brains of certain insects, specifically honeybees, resemble mechanisms in mammalian brains. This is indicated by the mention of Jingnan Huang and colleagues' observations that behaviors in honeybees, like foraging, are motivated by a dopamine-based signaling process similar to that seen in mammals in response to pleasure or the expectation of a reward.

The choice that completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of standard English is "including." This choice correctly implies that the list that follows is a part of the many inventions patented by Richard Spikes, without suggesting that it is a complete list.

To emphasize a difference between C-type and S-type asteroids, using relevant information from the notes, the most effective choice is:

"C-type asteroids are mainly composed of carbon, whereas S-type asteroids are primarily made up of silicate minerals."

This choice directly contrasts the compositions of the two asteroid types, highlighting the primary difference between them as noted in the student's research.

Additional Reading Provided:

No More No. 2 Pencils: The SAT Goes Fully Digital

The new format cuts nearly an hour out of the exam and has shorter reading passages.

After 98 years of students scratching answers on paper, the SAT will now be fully digital.Credit...Alex Brandon/Associated Press

By Dana Goldstein

March 8, 2024

With adolescent anxiety surging and attention spans challenged, high school students will take a revamped version of the SAT on Saturday, which has been designed in part to reduce stress, according to the College Board, which administers the test.

The exam will be briefer — two hours and 14 minutes instead of three hours — and students will have more time for each question. The reading passages will be much shorter, and test-takers will now be able to use an online graphing calculator for the entire math section of the exam.

Listen to this article with reporter commentary

Listen 8:39

Open this article in the New York Times Audio app on iOS.

And after 98 years of students scratching answers on paper, the SAT will now be fully digital for the remote-learning generation.

The College Board said its piloting of the exam showed it was just as rigorous as the paper test, but less intimidating for students. And those with A.D.H.D. and dyslexia, as well as those learning English, reported that they were “better able to maintain their focus” on the digital test, compared with the earlier format, said Jaslee Carayol, director of communications for the College Board.

Delivering the test digitally will also reduce the possibility of cheating, the College Board said, because few students will receive the exact same exam. In both reading and math, test-takers who perform well early in the exam will receive harder questions as they go along. (The College Board says scores will be accurate, regardless of the difficulty of questions.)

The Science of Reading Movement

What to Know: An effort to overhaul how children learn to read, known as the science of reading, is sweeping the United States. Here’s where it stands.
In New York: Gov. Kathy Hochul, who wants to change the way schools in the state teach reading, proposed spending $10 million to retrain teachers in the science of reading.
In California: A study found that California schools got positive results from a program that emphasized the science of reading — at a cost of about $1,000 per student annually.
A Reading Revolt: Parents, civil rights activists, educators and lawmakers are taking on the education establishment over how children are taught to read. But can they get results?

There are critics, though. The switch to shorter reading passages has not been universally celebrated by English teachers, many of whom believe that in the face of constant distractions from technology, students need to develop greater reading stamina.

The latest overhaul of the exam comes at a fraught moment for the standardized testing industry, in which most colleges have dropped testing requirements.

According to data from Common App, the number of college applicants submitting SAT or ACT scores plummeted from 76 percent in the 2019-2020 admissions cycle to 45 percent this year.

Here’s What It’s Like to Take the New SAT

Students will take a new SAT on Saturday. It’s all digital, and the reading and writing sections do away with page-long reading excerpts with eight to 11 questions.

Even though Yale, Dartmouth and Brown recently made waves by reinstating standardized test requirements, saying the scores are the best predictor of academic success, it is unlikely that most colleges, which are far less selective, will follow suit, said Mary L. Churchill, associate dean at the Boston University Wheelock College of Education and Human Development.

The average acceptance rate among four-year institutions is 73 percent, and most colleges do not face the challenge of having to draw fine-grained distinctions between huge swaths of highly qualified students. Indeed, with some smaller colleges facing under-enrollment and at risk of shutting down, many admissions directors see test-optional policies as a way to encourage more applications, Dr. Churchill said.

Amid this changing landscape, the College Board has successfully promoted the SAT to state policymakers as an integral part of the high school experience, and 16 states now require or encourage students to take the test during the school day, regardless of their plans for life after high school.

In total, 1.9 million students took the SAT in the high school class of 2023, with two-thirds taking the exam during the school day, often for free. In the 2019 class, there were 2.2 million test-takers.

Students will take the exam on an app called Bluebook. In some ways, it tries to recreate the experience of working with paper. There are tools to make highlights and annotations, and to cross out multiple-choice responses students think are wrong.

Test-takers will no longer need to flip back and forth between long reading passages and pages of accompanying questions. Instead, they will tackle a string of much shorter passages — some just one paragraph — each associated with a single question.

Yoon S. Choi, chief executive of CollegeSpring, a nonprofit that provides in-school test prep to low-income students, said the new format was a boon to many, especially English language learners.

But others — including some educators who work with that same population of students — expressed skepticism about the College Board’s revision.

“It seems to me like they are maybe trying to cater to this generation that is doing a lot of reading on the internet, bouncing around from one place to the next,” said Ariel Sacks, a New York City public school English teacher and author of a book arguing for the importance of assigning full novels. “But I don’t think that’s setting a high or even effective expectation for what students should be doing as juniors in high school.”

Ms. Carayol of the College Board acknowledged that reading stamina was important, but said the paper SAT also had not been a good test of that skill.

“Long test passages force students to race through text hunting for answers instead of reading carefully,” she wrote in an email. “There’s a huge benefit for a student by having these shorter passages. If they get uncomfortable or disoriented by a passage, they can skip it and return, rather than having eight to 11 questions tied to each passage.”

At North Houston Early College High School, Adair Rivera, a 17-year-old junior, will take the SAT in the School Day program. He hopes to become the first member of his immediate family to attend college, to study computer science.

Adair said he is earning higher scores on digital practice tests than when he took the paper SAT. He hopes to attend M.I.T. or Yale, which require test scores, or the University of Pennsylvania, which does not.

“It’s a game changer,” he said of the shorter reading passages and shorter exam time. “It doesn’t wear out students as fast.”

Travis McCracken 2024-03-08 Travis McCracken 2024-03-08

Lawmakers on the House Armed Services Committee would once again block the Air Force’s bid to retire older F-22 Raptor fighter jets

Despite confidence from the Air Force secretary that Congress would greenlight the F-22 divestments, lawmakers are once again inclined to keep the fighters around.

Forward: I am concerned that we hold these courts and lawmakers up simply so they can indulge their interests from lobbying $$. Lawyers and courts do not seem to server the citizens

By MICHAEL MARROWon June 14, 2023 at 2:28 PM

An F-22 Raptor takes off from Al Dhafra Air Base, United Arab Emirates, Feb. 21, 2022. (U.S. Air Force photo by Master Sgt. Dan Heaton)

WASHINGTON — Lawmakers on the House Armed Services Committee would once again block the Air Force’s bid to retire older F-22 Raptor fighter jets, a setback for service officials who sought to repurpose the fighter’s sustainment dollars to fund its next-generation successor.

Text of Armed Services Chairman Mike Rogers’ markup [PDF] of the fiscal 2024 defense policy bill further indicates that the committee would cut all funding for the Air Force’s troubled Air-launched Rapid Response Weapon (ARRW).

The Air Force sought permission to retire 32 Block 20 Raptors in FY24 that service officials emphasized are not combat-coded, a move Congress blocked last year. Despite confidence from the service’s top civilian that the divestments would finallybe granted, House authorizers would still not permit them, according to a senior committee aide.

The “FY23 prohibition on retirements for F-22’s still stands,” the aide told Breaking Defense. “Members view that the F-22 proposal is problematic because the Block 20 is combat capable depending on the threat environment; our most advanced F-22, the Block 30/25 aircraft, would then be required to absorb the training pipeline workload, adding unnecessary wear and tear to our most combat-capable fleet and very small fleet of remaining F-22s.” the aide explained.

Additionally, the Next Generation Air Dominance fighter that’s set to replace the Raptor “is still many years away from fielding and in its earliest stages of development,” the aide said. Last month, the Air Force kicked off the competition stage of that program, and has said it will select a contractor in calendar 2024.

According to a legislative proposal submitted by the Air Force [PDF], approximately $400 million could be saved annually between FY24 and FY27 and under $200 million in FY28 if the fighters are junked, money that the service instead repurposed for NGAD. Lt. Gen. Richard Moore, Air Force deputy chief of staff for plans and programs, warned in April that if the divestments are blocked — and additional funds are not appropriated to maintain the fighters — “there’ll be a half-a-billion dollars of something that won’t get done.

“Perhaps it’ll be NGAD. Perhaps it’ll be munitions. Perhaps we’ll stand down the F-22 fleet,” he said.

Providing political cover for the members opposing the F-22 retirements is the announcement today that F-22s from the 94th Fighter Squadron are being deployed to US Central Command, specifically as a deterrent to “unsafe” interactions with Russian pilots.

Quivering ARRW

After back-and-forth between Air Force officials on the fate of the ARRW program — with the service’s acquisition czar suggesting it would end in the upcoming fiscal year after finishing out planned testing, only for the service’s secretary to say a month later its future was still undecided — House authorizers would leave little doubt by zeroing its budget in FY24.

Specifically, the Air Force sought $150 million R&D funds in FY24 for ARRW to complete the program’s all-up-round testing, which service officials have described as critical to evaluate the fast-flying weapon’s performance. Denying those funds would truncate the testing and could effectively shutter the program after the current fiscal year, assuming the Air Force does not resume testing in a future budget cycle or go on to procure the ARRW from manufacturer Lockheed Martin.

Provisions for the F-22 and ARRW could still change as the full committee debates the legislation, which must then be approved by the House and negotiated with their counterparts in the Senate. Appropriators in the House and Senate could also further alter the outcome, such as by appropriating extra funds for F-22 sustainment or continued testing for ARRW. (The appropriations committee is set for its markup of the defense spending bill on Thursday.)

But during a hearing in March, the chair of the House Appropriations defense subcommittee expressed skepticism about the ARRW program, raising doubts about its continued funding.

“I don’t like to call it [research and development] welfare,” Rep. Ken Calvert, R-Calif., said, “but it seems to go on forever.”

Travis McCracken 2024-03-04 Travis McCracken 2024-03-04

Millions of online papers have disappeared

Authors - Martin Paul Eve (Crossref and Birkbeck, University of London)

| ISSN: 2162-3309 | Published by Iowa State University Digital Press |

Research Article

Digital Scholarly Journals Are Poorly Preserved: A Study of 7 Million Articles

Abstract

Introduction: Digital preservation underpins the persistence of scholarly links and citations through the digital object identifier (DOI) system. We do not currently know, at scale, the extent to which articles assigned a DOI are adequately preserved.

Methods: We construct a database of preservation information from original archival sources and then examine the preservation statuses of 7,438,037 DOIs in a random sample.

Results: Of the 7,438,037 works examined, there were 5.9 million copies spread over the archives used in this work. Furthermore, a total of 4,342,368 of the works that we studied (58.38%) were present in at least one archive. However, this left 2,056,492 works in our sample (27.64%) that are seemingly unpreserved. The remaining 13.98% of works in the sample were excluded either for being too recent (published in the current year), not being journal articles, or having insufficient date metadata for us to identify the source.

Discussion: Our study is limited by design in several ways. Among these are the facts that it uses only a subset of archives, it only tracks articles with DOIs, and it does not account for institutional repository coverage. Nonetheless, as an initial attempt to gauge the landscape, our results will still be of interest to libraries, publishers, and researchers.

Conclusion: This work reveals an alarming preservation deficit. Only 0.96% of Crossref members (n = 204) can be confirmed to digitally preserve over 75% of their content in three or more of the archives that we studied. (Note that when, in this article, we write “preserved,” we mean “that we were able to confirm as preserved,” as per the specified limitations of this study.) A slightly larger proportion, i.e., 8.5% (n = 1,797), preserved over 50% of their content in two or more archives. However, many members, i.e., 57.7% (n = 12,257), only met the threshold of having 25% of their material in a single archive. Most worryingly, 32.9% (n = 6,982) of Crossref members seem not to have any adequate digital preservation in place, which is against the recommendations of the Digital Preservation Coalition.

Keywords: digital preservation, persistent identifiers, scholarly communications

How to Cite:

Eve, M. P., (2024) “Digital Scholarly Journals Are Poorly Preserved: A Study of 7 Million Articles”, Journal of Librarianship and Scholarly Communication 12(1). doi: https://doi.org/10.31274/jlsc.16288

Travis McCracken 2024-02-13 Travis McCracken 2024-02-13

Air Force launches reorganization, as Kendall warns ‘We are out of time’ to match China

AIR WARFARE, CONGRESS, PENTAGON, SPACE

Under the "reoptimizing" effort, changes are coming across the Department of the Air Force, from new training approaches to the establishment of high-level offices.

By MICHAEL MARROW and THERESA HITCHENSon February 12, 2024 at 9:07 PM

Secretary of the Air Force Frank Kendall, center, listens as Scott Meredith, technical director of the Arnold Engineering Development Complex 716th Test Squadron, left, discusses the aerodynamic test capabilities of the 716TS. (U.S. Air Force photo by Keith Thornburgh)

AFA WARFARE SYMPOSIUM — Senior leaders of the Department of the Air Force (DAF) unveiled details of a sweeping reorganization of the Air Force and Space Force today, a long-awaited move that the department’s top civilian has said is needed to “reoptimize” the two branches for “great power competition” with China.

All told, a total of 24 organizational changes are expected across the Air Force, Space Force and its civilian leadership, senior officials said in a keynote at the Air & Space Forces Association’s Air Warfare Symposium in Denver, Colo. Timelines for the changes were not defined and many specific details still need to be ironed out, though some could take effect immediately whereas others will need “over a year” to be implemented, according to Air Force Secretary Frank Kendall.

Even though the revamp entails major changes across the organization, Kendall said today that no funds in the service’s fiscal year 2024 budget request, nor in the upcoming FY25 proposal, are being sought for the reoptimization drive. Officials will use budget reprogramming authorities to move funds around as needed, Kendall said, who noted some new money might be needed in FY26.

The Air Force is pursuing the bulk of these new efforts, with 15 major changes ranging from a different approach to nuclear weapons management to new warrant officer programs, according to Chief of Staff Gen. David Allvin.

Some major changes entail how the Air Force deploys its airmen by adjusting how its wings are structured. Others involve education, with plans to expand Air Education Training Command and rename it Airman Development Command.

Additionally, the Air Force is looking to embark on more large-scale exercises to simulate the conditions of a fight with a peer adversary. The service is aiming to carry the first such exercise out in the Indo-Pacific region sometime in FY25, according to Allvin, who warned that it might present budgetary pressures.

One major change that had been widely expected does not appear to be happening.

After a senior Space Force official suggested in December that the Air Force might be doing away with its current major command (MAJCOM) structure, Allvin disputed that, emphasizing that the current MAJCOM structure will remain intact. However, some of their responsibilities like developing requirements will instead be transferred to the new Integrated Capabilities Command, he explained.

The Air Force’s secretariat civilian leadership — which helps craft policy and budget decisions — has a much smaller list of changes. According to Kristyn Jones, who is performing the duties of the Air Force under secretary, the secretariat will stand up three new offices: an Integrated Capabilities Office, an Office of Competitive Activities and an Office for Program Analysis and Evaluation. (It was not immediately clear how the latter will work with the Pentagon-wide, service-independent Office of Cost Assessment and Program Evaluation, or CAPE.)

“These changes at the secretariat will help us to make the needed changes to stay ready and to be more effective,” Jones said. She did not specify where the staff for these offices might come from, or what other roles may be impacted as a result of creating them.

Among the planned changes for the Space Force elaborated by Chief of Space Operations Gen. Chance Saltzman, perhaps most critical is a revamp of service readiness standards to reflect that space is now a contested domain, rather than a “benign environment,” according to the Air Force’s press release.

As it stands, Saltzman said, Guardians simply don’t have the right equipment, training and “operational concepts” necessary to deal with the new environment. To address the problem, the Space Force is creating a Futures Command — a name seemingly drawn from the Army’s Futures Command, which stood up in 2018 — to assess long-term needs, comprising three separate centers.

The first, the Concepts and Technology Center, will be dedicated to looking at what will be needed as the threat environment changes, Saltzman said. The second will be focused on wargaming, and the third will build on the current Space Warfighting Analysis Center (SWAC) to develop force designs to meet those future needs.

Finally, the Space Force will designate Space Force Combat Squadrons as “units of action” that undertake day-to-day missions for combatant commands, he said. Meanwhile, the service will “retain some capacity in our mission squadrons to do the high-end advanced readiness activities,” he added, but provided little detail about how that would work operationally.

One of the first efforts to be able to address the new threats detailed by Saltzman will be a new officer training regime, which eventually will be expanded. That will involve not just training on how to operate systems, but also how to handle adversary actions. This will include changing training infrastructure, he noted.

“We have to rewrite the standards for readiness centered around a contested domain,” Saltzman said.

For his tenure as secretary, Kendall has stressed that the DAF is not prepared for a conflict with a peer adversary, namely China. To that end, at this same AFA conference in 2022, Kendall spelled out a list of seven “operational imperatives” that are aimed at tackling big initiatives like fielding all-domain command and control.

The reoptimization, which Kendall first announced in September 2023, adds on to those imperatives and others like a separate effort known as cross-cutting operational enablers. Whereas those initiatives are more closely tied to specific modernization challenges, today’s announcements are aimed at taking a broader look at how the Air Force itself is structured.

“We are out of time,” Kendall said today of the pacing challenge posed by China. “We can no longer regard conflict as a distant possibility or a future problem that we might have to confront. The risk of conflict is here now and that risk will increase with time.”

Many of the Air Force’s plans will need congressional buy-in, though it’s not clear how lawmakers might respond. JJ Gertler, a senior analyst with the Teal Group consultancy, told Breaking Defense ahead of the announcement that lawmakers’ interest, and potential opposition, is often shaped by major decisions for platforms and personnel.

“Congress is traditionally more interested in hardware and personnel than force design or organization. So it depends on how the Air Force sells the plan, and whether this is likely to mean a rethinking of either the types of platforms the Air Force is buying or if it will involve major personnel movements,” Gertler said.

“If the answer to either of those is ‘no,’ Congress is liable to let it go ahead after a couple of hearings,” he added. “But if the reorientation includes significant personnel movements or other changes to basing or what kind of aircraft will be stationed where, Congress will be much more interested.”

Travis McCracken 2023-09-19 Travis McCracken 2023-09-19

U.N. Chief’s Test: Shaming Without Naming the World’s Climate Delinquents

António Guterres told world leaders gathered in New York that their efforts to address the climate crisis had come up “abysmally short.”

Source: The New York Times | by Somini Sengupta

Sept 19, 2023 | updated 2:57 pm ET

The world’s top diplomat, António Guterres, the United Nations secretary general, on Tuesday told world leaders their efforts to address the climate crisis had come up “abysmally short” and called on them to do what even climate-ambitious countries have been reluctant to do: stop expanding coal, oil and gas production.

“Every continent, every region and every country is feeling the heat, but I’m not sure all leaders are feeling that heat,” he said in his opening remarks to presidents and prime ministers assembled for their annual gathering in the General Assembly. “The fossil fuel age has failed.”

Mr. Guterres, now in his second and last term, has made climate action his centerpiece issue and has become unusually blunt in his language about the need to rein in the production of fossil fuels and not just focus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions from their use.

As always, he pointed to the world’s 20 largest economies for not moving fast enough. As always, he stopped short of calling on specific countries.

The 2015 Paris climate accord asks only that countries set voluntary targets to address climate pollution. The agreements that come out of annual climate negotiations routinely get watered down, because every country, including champions of coal, oil and gas, must agree on every word and comma.

The secretary general can cajole but not command, urge but not enforce. He doesn’t name specific countries, though nothing in the United Nations Charter prevents him from doing so.

Despite his exhortations, governments have only increased their fossil fuel subsidies, to a record $7 trillion in 2022. Few nations have concrete plans to move their economies away from fossil fuels, and many depend directly or indirectly on revenues from coal, oil and gas. The human toll of climate change continues to mount.

“He has interpreted his role as a sort of truth teller,” said Rachel Kyte, a former United Nations climate diplomat and a professor at the Fletcher School at Tufts University. “The powers available to him as secretary general are awesome but limited.”

A coal plant in Poland. More than 100 countries have asked to speak at the climate summit Mr. Guterres is hosting Wednesday.Credit...Kuba Stezycki/Reuters

On Wednesday, he is deploying a bit of a diplomatic wink-nod. At a Climate Ambition Summit he is hosting , he is giving the mic only to those countries that have done as he has urged, and only if they send a high-level leader, to show that they take the summit seriously. “A naming and shaming device that doesn’t actually require naming and shaming anyone,” Mr. Gowan said.

Diplomatic jockeying around who will get on the list has been intense. More than 100 countries sent in requests to speak, and Mr. Guterres’s aides have in turn requested more information to prove they deserve to be on the list. What have you done on coal phaseout, some have been asked. How much climate funding have you offered? Are you still issuing new oil and gas permits? And so on.

“It’s good to see Guterres trying to hold their feet to the fire,” said Mohamed Adow, a Kenyan activist.

U.N. General Assembly: Live Updates

Updated

Sept. 19, 2023, 6:26 p.m. ET31 minutes ago

Mr. Guterres has waited until the last possible minute to make public the list of speakers.

Expect the awkward.

John Kerry, the United States climate envoy, is expected to attend but not speak. (Mr. Guterres is giving the mic only to high-level national leaders.) It’s unclear whether the head of the Chinese delegation this year, Vice President Han Zheng, will have a speaking role. The European Commission president, Ursula von der Leyen, has secured the mic. Britain’s prime minister, Rishi Sunak, isn’t coming to the General Assembly conclave at all. Sultan al-Jaber, the head of the Emirati oil company, and host of the next climate talks, is scheduled to speak.

Mr. Guterres will also invite companies with what he calls “credible” targets to reduce their climate emissions to participate. Expect to count them with the fingers of one hand.

“If fossil fuel companies want to be part of the solution, they must lead the transition to renewable energy,” he said Tuesday.

Mr. Guterres, who had led the United Nations refugee agency for 10 years before being selected for the top job, didn’t always make climate change his centerpiece issue.

“What are the most critical steps to take soon?”

In fact, he didn’t talk about it when he was chosen to head the United Nations in 2016. Climate was seen as the signature issue of his predecessor, Ban Ki-moon, who shepherded through the Paris Agreement in 2015. Mr. Guterres spoke instead about the war in Syria, terrorism, and gender parity in the United Nations. (His choice disappointed those who had pressed for a woman to lead the world body for the first time in its 70-year history.)

In 2018 came a shift. At that year’s General Assembly, he called climate change “the defining issue of our time.” In 2019, he invited the climate activist Greta Thunberg to the General Assembly, whose raw anger at world leaders (“How dare you?” she railed at world leaders) spurred a social media clash with President Donald J. Trump, who was pulling the United States out of the Paris Accord.

Mr. Guterres, for his part, studiously avoided criticism of the United States by name.

By 2022, as oil companies were raking in record profits in the aftermath of the Russian invasion of Ukraine, he amped up his language. “We need to hold fossil fuel companies and their enablers to account,” he told world leaders at the General Assembly. He called for a windfall-profit tax, urged countries to suspend subsidies for fossil fuels and appointed a committee to issue guidelines for private companies on what counts as “greenwashing.”

This year, he stepped into the contentious debate between those who want greenhouse gas emissions from oil and gas projects captured and stored away, or “abated,” and those who want to keep oil and gas tucked in the ground altogether. “The problem is not simply fossil fuel emissions. It’s fossil fuels, period,” Mr. Guterres said in June.

The reactions from the private sector are mixed, said Paul Simpson, a founder and former head of CDP, a nongovernmental group that works with companies to address their climate pollution. Some executives privately say Mr. Guterres is right to call for a swift phaseout of fossil fuels, while others note that most national governments still lack concrete energy transition plans, no matter what he says.

“The question really is, how effective is the United Nations?” Mr. Simpson said. “It has the ability to get governments to focus and plan. But the U.N. itself doesn’t have any teeth, so national governments and companies must act.”

Somini Sengupta is The Times’s international climate correspondent. She has also covered the Middle East, West Africa and South Asia and is the author of the book, “The End of Karma: Hope and Fury Among India’s Young”

Travis McCracken 2023-01-11 Travis McCracken 2023-01-11

Sodium comes to the battery world

Sodium-ion technology is ready, cheap, and safe, but can it oust lithium ion?

Source: Chemical & Engineering News | by Alex Scott

May 24, 2022 | A version of this story appeared in Volume 100, Issue 19

“What a time it is to be a battery chemist—on paper, some are even multimillionaires,” says Jerry Barker, chief scientist and founder of the battery firm Faradion and a chemist who has been discovering battery materials for decades.

Breakthroughs in lithium-ion battery technology are being registered almost daily. “I can’t keep up with it all,” Barker says. Gigafactories for making lithium-ion batteries are appearing with increasing frequency. It would take something extraordinary to knock Li-ion battery technology off its perch.

And yet lithium has a fundamental problem. Demand for the element is so great for applications including electric vehicles, portable electronic devices, and stationary energy units that lithium mining companies are struggling to keep up. “The price of lithium will stay high,” says Michael Sanders, senior adviser at the consulting firm Avicenne Energy, speaking at the International Battery Seminar & Exhibit in March. In addition, about 90% of the world’s supply of lithium is controlled by Chinese companies.

As a result, batteries based on sodium are gaining attention, especially from Western companies seeking a secure supply chain for battery materials. The Achilles’ heel of sodium-ion batteries is that they can store only about two-thirds of the energy of Li-ion batteries of equivalent size. Developers of Na-ion batteries say they are steadily increasing the energy density of their prototypes. None are commercial yet, but serious competition for lithium could soon be on the way.

“Price of lithium has gone to insane levels!” Tesla CEO Elon Musk tweeted April 8. “Tesla might actually have to get into the mining & refining directly at scale, unless costs improve. There is no shortage of the element itself, as lithium is almost everywhere on Earth, but pace of extraction/refinement is slow.” Musk pointed to data from the information service World of Statistics showing that the price of lithium hydroxide had risen to $78,032 per metric ton (t) from $6,800 in 2019.

“Price of lithium has gone to insane levels!”

Elon Musk, CEO, Tesla

Meanwhile, the price of sodium hydroxide, a common sodium-ion battery precursor, is below $800 per metric ton. While lithium must be extracted from rocks or brine, battery-grade sodium hydroxide is readily produced during the electrolytic conversion of salt into chlorine.

Cost is indeed a key differentiator between lithium and sodium ion, according to Chris Wright, executive chairman of Faradion, which is developing sodium-ion batteries.

“The bill of materials for a sodium-ion cell is about one-third cheaper than for an equivalent one made from lithium ion,” Wright says. Na-ion batteries also perform well at as low as –20 °C and are not at risk of thermal runaway, “unlike some Li-ion batteries, which have been known to catch fire,” he adds.

Rechargeable sodium-ion batteries are similar in construction to lithium-ion ones. During charging, Na ions move from a sodium- and iron-containing cathode through a liquid electrolyte and across a polymer barrier to a hard carbon anode. On discharge, the sodium ions return from the anode to the cathode.

Faradion’s batteries have an energy density of about 160 W h/kg, similar to that of older Li-ion batteries featuring a lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cathode. At least for now, sodium ion’s relatively poor energy density precludes its use in fast electric vehicles and limits its applications largely to stationary energy markets.

Still, the consulting firm Wood Mackenzie forecast in a 2021 report that Na-ion batteries have the potential to mitigate some of the supply chain pressure on LFP and newer Li-ion batteries containing nickel, manganese, and cobalt. The firm forecast that production of Na-ion batteries will reach 20 GW h by 2030, up from pilot-scale production quantities today. Total battery production capacity in 2030 will be about 2,800 GW h, according to Avicenne’s Sanders.

Sodium ion’s lower energy density, which previously held back its use in batteries, may not be such an issue after all, Wright says. “People have realized that for many applications, a slightly lower energy density is not as commercially significant as was once thought,” he says.

LFP-based batteries, which were almost written off 8 or 9 years ago, are taking an increasingly large share of the market, Wright says. One reason is that newer, more energy-dense Li-ion cells have high heat output, which means they require more space for cooling, he says.

Through improvements in cell architecture and component engineering, Faradion and other developers of Na-ion batteries expect to improve the energy density of their batteries in the next few years. Faradion is targeting 190 W h/kg. “Our latest understanding shows sodium-ion’s performance in batteries could become better than we thought,” Barker says.

Executives at India’s Reliance Industries certainly think sodium-ion technology is well positioned to carve out a niche in the battery market. The industrial giant acquired Faradion in January for $135 million and has pledged to invest $35 million in the British firm to commercialize its technology. Reliance plans to build a Na-ion battery factory in Jamnagar, India, for applications such as slower electric vehicles, like rickshaws, and stationary power storage.

Faradion is not the only Na-ion company with near-term plans for commercial production. The California-based start-up Natron Energy unveiled plans earlier this month to open a facility in 2023 to produce 0.6 GW h of Na-ion batteries annually. Rather than build a plant from scratch, Natron has partnered with Clarios to convert a portion of that firm’s Li-ion battery plant in Michigan to sodium-ion technology.

Natron uses a sodium material based on the pigment Prussian blue for both its anode and cathode. The cathode is rich in iron, while the anode is rich in manganese. “The materials and the chemistry are where Natron innovates; the manufacturing techniques are all standard,” says Rob Rogan, Natron’s chief business officer.

The company has outsourced production of its Prussian blue compound to Arxada, Lonza’s former specialty chemical business. Arxada will make the material, including the precursor hydrogen cyanide, in Visp, Switzerland.

Natron batteries have an energy density of about 70 W h/kg—similar to that of lead-acid batteries and too low for most electric vehicles. “We have relatively low energy density but extremely high power density,” Rogan says. “What we’re finding is that as the world’s energy transitions, there are different battery technologies that are suited for certain applications. Our batteries are designed to deliver huge amounts of power over short durations.”

As a result, Rogan says, the batteries are suitable as auxiliary power for industrial applications such as data centers, a market that could be worth $30 billion annually by 2027.

Natron’s transition from lab to mass production has been a long time coming. The company was founded in 2012 on technology developed by CEO and cofounder Colin Wessells while earning his PhD at Stanford University. The company has raised about $120 million in funding and received $25 million in grants and support from Advanced Research Projects Agency–Energy, a US government agency.

Altris Energy also recently announced plans to build its first commercial Na-ion battery plant. The Swedish start-up secured $10.5 million in February, bringing its total funding to about $12 million.

Uppsala University postdoc Ronnie Mogensen and associate professors William Brant and Reza Younesi founded Altris in 2017. Their interest in sodium-ion technology was sparked by a study by Nobel laureate John B. Goodenough and colleagues about Prussian white’s potential as a cathode material in Na-ion batteries (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2015, DOI: 10.1021/ja510347s).

Altris’s Prussian white compound, an analog of Prussian blue that the firm has named Fennac, is composed primarily of iron and sodium. The company’s anode is made from hard carbon sourced from biomass, its electrolyte is fluorine-free, and its separator is derived from cellulose fiber. “Beyond the Fennac-based cathode, each and every one of the cell’s components are drastically improved compared to rival lithium-ion cells with regards to the sustainability of the materials used,” Altris says.

Altris has developed a Prussian white cathode material that contains sodium and iron.Before founding the firm, Mogensen and Younesi had selected Prussian white as a cathode material to suit a polymer electrolyte they had been developing. At the time, the only way to make Prussian white was in a pressurized boiler via a process that involved the formation of cyanide. “It was a potential cyanide bomb, so the university would not allow them to make it in any volume,” says Altris chief technology officer Tim Nordh. The two eventually developed a safer process that became the basis of the company, he says.

Altris’s battery cell has an energy density of about 150 W h/kg. “With this we are already in the LFP space.” With tweaks such as reducing the volume of electrolyte, increasing its energy density to 200 W h/kg “is not unreasonable,” Nordh says. Altris’s Fennac could still be years away from powering electric vehicles, Nordh says, as the qualifying tests for automotive batteries are extensive. The company is therefore initially seeking to market Fennac for use in stationary batteries.

In addition to using inexpensive starting materials, Altris expects to save money on solvent costs. Lithium-ion cathode production typically requires use of the solvent N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, which the European Chemicals Agency classifies as a substance of very high concern. As a result, Li-ion cathode plants need sophisticated and costly drying rooms to recover solvents. Altris uses a water-based solvent to make its sodium-ion cathodes, Nordh says.Nordh is also happy to see that the energy density of a sodium-ion battery being developed by China’s Contemporary Amperex Technology, the world’s largest lithium-ion battery producer, “is about the same,” he says.

CATL declined to provide C&EN with information about its Na-ion battery technology, although the company disclosed last year that it expected to begin making commercial volumes in 2023. It reported previously that it had developed a Prussian white cathode with a porous hard-carbon anode.

The case for sodium would be even stronger if chemists could create a battery featuring a sodium metal anode. It would have an energy density beyond 230 W h/kg—enough to compete with today’s higher-performing Li-ion batteries.

One of the challenges of making such a battery is preventing the formation of the dendritic structures that can cause short circuits. Lithium metal battery developers such as QuantumScape and Factorial Energy say they have dendrites under control, but Nordh says the structures that can form in sodium metal batteries are bigger.

R&D for sodium metal batteries is in general far behind that for lithium metal batteries, but there is speculation that CATL is close to producing one. Success would constitute a major step forward in battery technology.

Meanwhile, sodium-ion battery developers are poised to begin moving from pilot- to commercial-scale production. Supply chain issues with lithium are the opening they have been waiting for. If sodium ion is going to steal market share from lithium ion, now is the time.

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China’s Evolving Maritime Strategy

Navigating the Malacca Dilemma

The Strategic Bluff and its Global Repercussions

Economic Influence

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Strategic Assertions and Diplomatic Engagements

Diplomatic Leverage through Multinational Forums

The Role of China International Development Cooperation Agency (CIDCA)

Regional Ambitions and Strategic Outposts

Chinese Engagements in the Indian Ocean Region

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Overseas Bases and Their Inherent Vulnerabilities

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The Science of Reading Movement

Despite confidence from the Air Force secretary that Congress would greenlight the F-22 divestments, lawmakers are once again inclined to keep the fighters around.

Authors - Martin Paul Eve (Crossref and Birkbeck, University of London)

Digital Scholarly Journals Are Poorly Preserved: A Study of 7 Million Articles

Abstract

Under the "reoptimizing" effort, changes are coming across the Department of the Air Force, from new training approaches to the establishment of high-level offices.

António Guterres told world leaders gathered in New York that their efforts to address the climate crisis had come up “abysmally short.”

Source: The New York Times | by Somini Sengupta

Sept 19, 2023 | updated 2:57 pm ET

Sodium-ion technology is ready, cheap, and safe, but can it oust lithium ion?

Source: Chemical & Engineering News | by Alex Scott

May 24, 2022 | A version of this story appeared in Volume 100, Issue 19

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